The emergence of early states in the valley of the Nile (2nd floor. IV thousand

Bronze Age - a new step in the development of mankind.
First, a brief reference: the bronze age - the historical period, which changed the eneith and characterized by the spread of metallurgy bronze, bronze guns and weapons in the con. 4 - beginning. 1st thousand to n. e. (in separate regions later). The bronze age appeared nomadic cattle breeding and irrigation agriculture, writing, slavement (Middle East, China, southern America, etc.). Replaced with an iron age.
The combining line of the bronze century is to varying degrees a pronounced use of copper alloys with other components, primarily with tin. For a number of territories, the Bronze Age is divided into early, medium and late stages. Due to certain reasons in different regions, the bronze age has different dating and content.
In the southern regions of Central Asia (3-2 thousand BC. E.) Bronze age - the time of registration of the Protogrobod centers (Sapalli, Altyn-Tepe). Main industries: irrigated farming, developed craft (the appearance of a pottery circle), trade. Sophisticated social differentiation is characteristic.
Bronze Age in the steppes of Eurasia (Ser. 3rd - beginning. 1st thousand to n. Er) is associated with the flourishing of ancient cattle breeding societies. According to one of the hypotheses, it was here that Indo-European language community has developed.
In the initial phase of the history, cattle breeding (horse breeding and breeding of small cattle) had a moving nature, which led to distant migration of numerous groups of the population, the activation of various intercultural bonds and the formation of blocks of related crops. The mound rite of burial was spread; The history of equestrian riding and wheel transport began using a horse as a TRP. Animal, complicated social structure. Later, a lot of spread received a settling (shepherd) cattle breeding. There were chariots and characteries.
In the bronze age, the formation of a number of mining and metallurgical regions and centers (Caucasus, South Urals, Central Kazakhstan, and others), which had a great influence on regional culture-generating processes. In the late bronze age in the steppes, Eurasia there was a community of settled cattle breeders, mainly Iranian-speaking cultures (Andronovskaya, cutting). More diverse their connections with South Forest crops became more diverse. Mixed cultures appeared in the contact zones. Cattle breeding and in the definition step. Metallurgy and metalworking bronze penetrated the forest strip. Monuments of the Bronze Age give the first testimonies of distant migrations for forest and forest-steppe zones, both from the west - from the southeastern Baltic and Central Europe (Fatyanovskaya and Abashevsky culture) and from the East - from Western Siberia (monuments of the Seine-Turbine type).
At the final stage of the Bronze Century in the steppes and forest-steppes, Eurasia was the commonality of pastoral and cattle breeding and agricultural archaeological crops, for which ceramics was pecullen, decorated with outdoor surface with garbage rollers. The carriers of these cultures took part in the formation of a new lifestyle - nomadicity characteristic of the steppe archaeological crops of the next period of ancient history.
At this, the historical help finish, and we set out everything in your own words.
In deep antiquity, in the valleys of large rivers: Nile, Eufrat and Tigger, Indea, Huanghe in the IV-III Millenniums BC The first slave-owned states arose.
In large farms, it became necessary to bones for livestock, barns for bread, pantry for fruits and vegetables. There is also a large number of reliable weapons for protection and conquests.
Stone tools were too small and breaking for new works. It was necessary to find a very durable material to prepare from it the big strong blades for plows, heavy axes and hammers.
Processing stones, people noticed that some of them are softer than the rest. When such stones fell into the fire, they melted and, frozen, took a new form. In fact, it was not stones, but pieces of copper or copper ore. They met people locally with rich copper fields. Near Egypt, such deposits were on the Sinai Peninsula.
About 4,000 years before our era of the Egyptians learned how to handle copper.
First, they only killed nuggets with copper hammers, fed her. But copper rarely came across a nugget; It is usually mixed in ore with other rocks. You need a great skill and experience to distinguish the necessary ore, pay copper from the mixture and give it different forms; To do this, it was necessary to apply fire.
Copper and was one of the first metals, along with gold and silver, which began to use a person. But gold and silver meet too rarely, so they did not receive such widespread use to create workers and weapons.
However, copper has a significant disadvantage - it is too soft; Copper tire or blade will soon bend and stupid. Therefore, starting with the III Millennium BC to our era to copper for hardness began to add tin in the ratio of approximately 1/8. This alloy called bronze. To prepare bronze products, it was necessary to either make a shape of a stone and clay and pour into it molten metal or beat the hot soft strips with a hammer and give them the kind of blades, nails, pointed sticks, etc. The period of preferential use by man of bronze guns was called the "bronze age".
Later, people learned how to mine and remove the iron: the tools were even stronger. However, Bronze has not lost its position.
Large workshops of metallic dressage arose: still in some places there are traces of vintage large blacksmiths. They were supposed to be near those places where copper or iron ore was mined. If the people moved to another settlement, blacksmiths and loafers remained in the old place; They had to work on other people's people. As an interemphetics of the Blacksmiths in some nations were in contempt; Others, on the contrary, were highly honored by them: they considered things with people, since their heavy case seemed to be cunning and mysterious.
Together with metal products, a special kind of luxury and wealth appeared. Brilliant smooth and bell-bearing yellow, white and reddish things from metals really liked women and gave a good price for them.
Bracelets, necklaces, rings, earrings, clashes made of bronze, gold and silver were considered the best decorations. Metal stripes began to sow roofs of houses, thresholds, door jambs. Deaders put on the face mask from thin gold sheets. Who wanted to boast, said that he had a lot of metal at home.
People of different countries in Europe did not at one time climbed such a degree of wealth and skill. Previously, the inhabitants of the South, the Balkan Peninsula, Italy, Sicily; For a thousand years later, the inhabitants of the present France, not a few years later, the residents of Sweden later. This difference occurred because the items of particularly fine work were brought by the sea from the East, from Egypt, Malaya Asia, Syria, where people used to achieve inventions and improvements. New items, and with them new techniques of more skillful work, just reached the southern edge of Europe and only slowly penetrated the middle of the mainland. And only about 500 years before our era, iron finally came to shift bronze. "

With a fall of about 1075. BC. The unified centralized state of the new kingdom, Egypt enters later (1075-332GG BC) of its territory. The main difference of it from the preceding epoch is the growing and reaching a maximum by the end of 9V. BC. Decentralization of the Egyptian society. The unified structure decays to a number of separate farms under the control of the rulers of individual nomes and related nomic churches. Those land plots that have allocated by the state in the era of the new kingdom to major officials in the conditional holding with the disappearance of centralized power are transformed into complete property. On the basis of resources of these farms, the rulers of Nomov create their own administrative apparatus and army. There comes a period of political fragmentation. Egypt's associations at this time arise due to either strengthening the influence of one of the local groups of the Egyptian elite (24, 26 and 28 Sissy, 29 Mendesse and 30 Seven Dynasty), or establishing an ingenic dominion (22 and 23 Libyan, 25 - Nubian and 27 Persian dynasty). The real political influence in the country throughout the late period is in the hands of the Nome grouping of the Egyptian elite. This is associated with the decline of the external power of Egypt, because In the hands of the Nosjiizipetsky dynasties of 1 thousand BC Economic and human resources were not enough to create a strong and combat-ready army. With the exception of some episodes, late Egypt does not conduct conquering wars, in contrast, becomes the object of conquest from the African neighbors, and later, the great powers of the forefront.

Socio-economic development. In the field of economy in 1 millennium BC. The decisive factor was the use of iron in the farm and military business. The peoples (Assyrians, Kushites, Greeks) were essential on Egypt, which previously mastered its production and processing technique, due to the proximity to sources of raw materials. In the craft leading was the processing of metals: bronze, iron, gold, silver. High levels reached the weaving and production of color ceramics, the shipbuilding technique was improved.

The monumental construction of temple and secular buildings was revived in the Saisian era. Intensively developed inventory-cash relations. The object of sale and selling became even earth. Equivalent - silver. Foreign trade (contacts with Carthage and Phenicia, Greek policies) develop.

Social relations. The ruling top - nomovoy and military know, priesthood, merchants and mercenaries - enriched. Free population - minor manufacturers - fall into the complex conditions for the development of commodity and money relations, private land tenure, the sale of land and movable property. The ruined landowners become land tenants on the bible conditions, which leads to the crushing of the Earth for even smaller areas and their returns to the hiring even more small tenants. The broken free falls into Kabalu, often together with families. Spring sources are flourishing, such as self-sale for a certain period, and "to infinity".

The characteristic feature of the social structure of the lateral is also the strengthening of the class closetness. She manifested itself in the heredity of the profession, traditional rules of behavior, rites.

The influx of slave prisoners of war in 1 thousand BC significantly decreased due to the fact that Egypt himself was the object of conquest.

Accept with acute social conflicts occur and for the purpose of their permission, the rulers of Egypt were forced to carry out radical reforms (theorem, Bokchoris, Amasis). The ideology of the late, especially the Sais period was distinguished by a certain focus. Its characteristic of the feature was a refund to the ancient traditions, archaic beliefs, customs, archaeization titles, language, literary style, architecture, art. Periods of ancient and middle kingdoms are represented as a "golden age" as a political ideal. Of the foreign influences - the Greek influence in connection with the accommodation in its territory of Greek merchants, mercenaries, artisans, as well as the establishment of direct political ties with Greek states.

The accumulation of Libyans in the north of the country and the use of many of them as a soldier-mercenaries led at the turn of II-I thousand BC. To the extension on the advance of the political life of the country of ambitious Libyan military leaders who actively interfering in the internal struggle of Pharaohs with a strengthened local one. This intervention was completed by the fact that one of Sheshonk military regists in the middle of the KH. BC. captured the power and laid the beginning of 22 Libyan dynasty. Libyan dynasties were effectively monitored only by the Delta district. In the Nile Valley, the local play was playing a big role. In 8V. BC. The rulers of Nubia began a successful campaign for the seizure of Upper Egypt, which led to the creation of a 25 Nubian dynasty, which ruled to the moment when 671. BC. The victorious Assyrian Tsar Asarkhaddon did not conquer Egypt. However, Assyria did not secure her victory because of the internal junctions and 664. Libyan Psammetichi founded 26 dynasty for an hour and a half, united Egypt under the authority of the Sais Pharaohs (SAIS in Delta was their capital).

From this time, the Greeks and colonists began to play a huge role in the history of Egypt and in relations with the outside world. Together with the Phoenicians, they began to actively profit the Mediterranean coast of the country. In 525 BC. The troops of the Persian King Cambiza committed with the independence of Egypt, turning it to 404g. BC. In the satrapy of the Agemenid Empire (this time is considered to be a period of 27 Persian dynasty). The liberation from the Persian authorities led to the emergence of a short-term 28 and 30 Egyptian dynasties, while the conquest of Alexander Macedonian in 332g. BC. Reggerer did not lead to the fall of the independence of Egypt. After the death of Alexander Egypt became the possession of one of the Greek companions Diarats, Ptolemy. The period of the Board of Ptolemy and its successors, including Cleopatra, was marked by the energetic Hellenization of the country, the capital of which was Alexandria. Ptolemyevsky Egypt fell into a decline at the turn of a new era, after which the country for the long century turned into a province of Rome, and then (from the IV century. AD) - Byzantium.

The emergence of early states in the Nile Valley (2nd floor. IV thousand BC. Er)

A powerful jump in the development of ancient Egyptian society occurs with the beginning second dynastic period (OK. XXXVI-XXXI centuries. BC. e.; the time of archaeological cultures of HERZ / Naga II and Semyin / Naga III). Settlements of people of this time are enlarged by reaching the sizes of early cities (Jerantepol settlements, modern com el-ahmar; Nagada - ancient Coptos, etc.). The burials begin to differ in the wealth of the inventory placed in them, which indicates the allocation of the property elite in society. On some subjects, it is possible to detect individual signs, known at later ancient Egyptian hieroglyphik, therefore, the inner life of society has become so difficult that it was necessary to record events using the letter.

Many finds of this period (cylindrical seals, ceramic vessels with wavy handles, images of a special type of loose) have so clear analogies in the archaeological complexes of Asia, that some researchers leanned against the thought of conquering Egypt invited from the east more developed people (the so-called dynastic racial, allegedly creating an Egyptian state). In fact, these analogies are explained by the similar (convergent) evolution of material culture of various regions, as well as intensive trading contacts and exchange of experience between Egypt and Eastern Mediterranean (and through it - and more remote countries) caused by a lack of many necessary materials in the Nile valley. A particularly vivid example of how far trading ties could sell, they serve the objects of Lazurit found in Egypt, whose field is located in the south of Central Asia.

The characteristic features of monuments of the second dynastic period (the size of settlements, differences in the quality of burials, the likely generation of writing) indicate that the Egyptian society has already reached the level of early statehood. At this stage there is a need for a special extensive layer of people professionally busy management. As you know according to the examples of many early societies, the first states - noma They were small in size and arose from communities associations, which conducted joint economic activities in a compact territory and in the Compact Center (simultaneously - the place of storage of common stocks, placement of craft workshops, local trade center). Such centers have become large settlements of the second dynastic period. The need of Egyptian communities in the union (as in other countries of the East with irrigation economy) occurs especially early due to the need for joint activities to create irrigation systems. This particular activity begins to lead the emerging state power.

In historical time, the upper Egypt was divided into 22, and the lower - on 20 small provinces-Nomov (Egypt. Sepaat). Governors of such provinces that often conveyed their inheritance powers, researchers designate the Greek term "nomarh". Everyone was self-sufficient in economic relations, had its own system of cult and when weakening the central government could become independent. It is believed that the nomes of historical time go down to the oldest states of the second dynastic period. It is unlikely that it can be different, especially since the sacred symbols of the nomov ("Standards") are found in images on the monuments of the end of this period. However, due to the lack of modern or at least late written sources or legends, no more detailed information about the internal device and the history of Egypt states (in contrast, for example, from Mesopotamia) we have no.

For a long time it was believed that as a result of the wars between the nomic states of the valleys and the Neil delta during the second diverse period, two major states were formed - Upper Egyptian, with the capital in Jeneconpole (Egypt. Nevkin), and Nizhipetskoe, with the capital in Buto (Egypt. PE-DEP Probably the modern Tella El Farain).

Both of these cities have already been considered ancient religious centers in historical time. Previously it was assumed that by the end of IV thousand to n. e. The Upper Egyptian kings won the Nile Delta and united the country. However, new archaeological studies have shown that the path to the unification of Egypt was more complex.

Apparently, to the 2nd half of IV thousand to n. e. In Upper Egypt, there were several relatively large, consisting of more than one nome, states. About the XXXIII century. BC e. The strongest of them and swinging the rest were the kingdoms with centers in the cities of Tinis (the central and middle part of the Upper Egypt), the hierakonpol (south of Upper Egypt) and Naga (the area of \u200b\u200bthe future cities of Coptos and Ombos). The rulers of Tinis took the names that bind them with a worshiped in the form of falcon and personified the sky and the Sun Disc by God Chorus, and got buried near the future of an important religious center - the city of Abidos. In the hieraconpole, the cult of the choir was also common, and the rulers wore a white crown of a bottle-shaped shape and placed next to their images sign a socket. In Nagad, the god Net is the mythological opponent of the choir, and in the complexes of the second dynastic period, the ancient image of a red crown in the form of a wicker basket was found, in the future - a steam white crown.

The Ierakonopol Kingdom tried to subjugate to himself who bordered with him from the south of Nubia, and the Tiniso region - the areas of Lower Egypt. At the same time, they maintained closer ties among themselves than with the state of Naga, which apparently, bypassing it, on the caravan ways outside the Nile Valley.

What states existed at this time in Nizhny Egypt, it is difficult to say due to the scarce of archaeological data. Probably, interests of the Upper Egyptian rulers were primarily the region along the two main bobbeds of the Delta, which gave way to the sea trade routes of the Mediterranean (the center of one of these areas in the west of the delta could really be Boto). It was suggested that if the conditions of the Upper Egypt, with the narrowness at all of its river valley and the high interdependence of irrigation systems of individual nomes, and then their unions, from the very beginning they spent the authoritarian authority of the rulers and the high rates of combining the entire region, then in Nizhny Egypt, Detrally connected due to the presence of several Nile sleeves, in dodinal time it was not a strong royal power, nor a single state.

The rulers of Tinis and Jeeterpole, known for a number of monuments of that time, modern researchers are conventionally united in " 0 Y.» dynasty. The names of these rulers are associated with the choir and, apparently, mean that the kings - earthly manifestations of this God, and at the same time they often were the designation of some fierce animal or aggressive epithet. On the monuments, they were depicted by winning or celebrating military victories or committent rituals. For example, on the thrill of the Bulava of the Jeanoscapol King named Scorpio, he depicts the first furrow at the beginning of agricultural work. Gradually, the scenes of the military triumph of the rulers displacing the previously common plots of collective hunting or battles with the participation of a whole troop.

For the aggregate of these signs, it is possible to judge that the kings of the end of the second diverse period in Egypt are rulers rulers who do not have any restrictions on their authorities on the part of community and nominated governing bodies - the councils of elders and meetings of full-fledged soldiers. According to the general laws of the development of nomed states at the dawn of their existence, power in them should belong to such institutions. However, in Upper Egypt, due to the intensity of its political development and association, this initial stage was very quickly replaced by the sole government subordinating the nominal authorities of the military leaders. These rulers acquired, in addition to military powers, also the functions of the Supreme Priests - the vertex of the ritual and the heads of state-shop farms, governing the economic life of their states. They were inherited by her power, and her connection with the ritual, through which the vital contact with the gods was established (in the era under consideration, this quality of rulers was marked by their choral names), led to her sacralization and origin tsarist cult.

It was the attitude towards the cult associated with the choir, it seems that the most important criterion for the allocation of several social layers in the structure of the society in the structure of society. At a later time, the terms "are" monuments and texts of a religious nature " pat"(" Know "with a tint of a privileged position in the religious sphere)," rech"(" People "- the word transmitted on the letter to the characteristic image of a bird with broken wings, which symbolized the infringeance of this category in a cult attitude) and" henmemet."(" Sunny People "- in mythological texts satellites of the Sun of the Sun in his Floor, which makes swimming in the sky).

The word "PAT" is an integral part of the word "Repaat" or "Iripat" (letters. "Major know" or "related to nobility") - in fact, the only Egyptian term of power, which suggests that it does not belong to the ruler inherently, and Granted to him some kind of group of people. Perhaps the term "Pat" was initially denoted by the full free population (by analogy with other early societies, obviously, communities) of the state, which, under the banner of his original cult of the Choir, led successful conquests and eventually united the country (i.e. the Tinis kingdom ). The word "Rechit" was probably called the inhabitants of the regions attached to him, at least at the first pores who did not receive equality with its initial subjects (first of all access to the Egyptian cults of them).

The term "Henmemet", according to the interpretation of the domestic Egyptologist XX century. O. D. Berleva, referred to the warriors - the real environment of the king, who accompanied him like the mythological satellites of the Sun (in the IV - early III thousand BC. E. God Chora, depicted, by the way, and in the form of falcant in Floor) , i.e., people who were associated with the state and its cults through the ruler, regardless of their original affiliation to Pat or Rech.

Note that such a structure of society that experiences the development of statehood is characteristic not only for Egypt - it is not by chance that the first interpreters of the terms "Pat" and "Rechit" immediately remembered the terms of the early Roman Republic "Patricia" and "Plebei".

Later mythological tradition about the struggle of the choir and set and victory of the first, combination in the symbols of the kings of the kings of a single Egypt White and Red Crown, despite that the "championship" in this single crown was clearly given to Belaya, suggest that the confrontation of the Union of Tinis and Hieraconepol with Nagada, ending with its defeat. Already in the images on Maveros, the Tsar Scorpion Tsar are present symbols of power and hieraconepol, and Naga. Apparently, the next stage was the association of Tinis and Jeeterpole and the formation of a solid single state within the boundaries of the entire Upper Egypt. This should have happened around the XXXI century. BC e. at the Tinisian king Narmere ("Fierce Som"), which unites in images on its monuments the symbols of the authorities of all former Upper Egyptian states. After that, Narmer could begin to begin the conquest of the Delta and the Libyan regions lying to the west of it. Triumphal scenes and pictographic records of his famous monumental palette are told about it.

In 1st thousand BC. There is an economic ascent of ancient state states, caused by the introduction of new metal - iron, intensive development of land and maritime trade, the settlement of all the territories of the Middle East convenient for life. At this time, a number of old states, such as the Hettt state, Mitanni, disintegrate into parts, are absorbed by other states, and go with historical arena. Others, such as Egypt, Babylon, are experiencing intra and foreign policy decay, are inferior of their leading role in world politics to other states, among which Assyria is allocated. In addition, in 1st thousand BC. New states - Urartu, Kush, Lydia, Middi, Persia come to the political arena.

Another 2nd thousand BC. Assyria has become one of the largest annifespheus states. However, the invasion of half-blooded Aramaic tribes was hardly reflected on its fate. Assyria was experiencing a protracted, almost two hundred year decay, from which it recovered only in the 10th century BC. The axial aramey was mixed with the main population. The introduction of iron to the military began. At the political arena, Assyria had no worthy rivals. Assiri's conquering campaigns were pushed by a lack of raw materials (metals, iron), as well as the desire to capture the subaneum labor - slaves. Assidia often moved entire peoples from place to place. Many people paid a large tribute to Assyria. Gradually, over time, the Assyrian state has become in essence to live with these constant robbery.

In the desire to capture the riches of the anterior Asia Assyria was not alone. States such as Egypt, Babylon, Urartu, were constantly opposed in this Assyria, and she led long wars with them.

By the beginning of the 9th century BC. Assyria was strengthened, restored its power in northern Mesopotamia and resumed a complicated foreign policy. Especially she was intensified by the Board of two kings: Ashurnacillapal 2 (883-859 BC) and Salmanasar 3 (859-824. BC). With the first of them, Assyria successfully fought in the north with the tribes of Nairi, of which the state of Urartu was formed later. A number of lesions Assier forces caused mountain tribes of mussels who lived east of the tiger. But the main direction of the Assyrian expansion was directed to the West, to the area of \u200b\u200bthe Eastern Mediterranean coast. The abundance of minerals (metals, precious stones), the magnificent buildings, incense were known in the Middle East. Here they also passed the main ways of land and marine trade. They took place through such cities like a shooting school, Sidon, Damascus, Bible, Arvad, Carkemish.

It is in this direction that the main military campaigns of Ashurchnacinaca 2. He launched to break the Aramaic tribes who lived in Northern Syria, to conquer one of their principalities - Bit-Adini. Soon he reached the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, and a number of rulers of the Syrian principalities and Phoenician cities brought him a tribute.

His son Salmanasar 3 continued to have a conquest politics of the Father. Most hikes were also directed to the West. However, at that time, Assyria fought in other phenomena. In the north there was a war with the state of Urartu. At first, Salmanasar 3 managed to apply a few defeats, but then the Urartu gathered with the forces, and the war with him was tightened.

Great User brought the Assyrians to the fight against Babylon. Their troops invaded far deep into the country and reached the shores of the Persian Gulf. Soon Assyrian stalenik was planted on the Babylonian throne. In the West, Salmanasar 3 finally captured the principality of Bit-Adini. He was brought by tribute and expressed the humility of the kings of the principalities of Northern Syria and the Southeast of Malaya Asia (Kummuh, Melid, Hattin, Gurgum, etc.). However, the Damascus Kingdom soon created a numerous coalition to combat Assyria. It includes such countries kue, Hamat, Arzad, Israeli kingdom, Ammon, Arabs of the Syrian-Mesopotama steppe, and the Egyptian detachment participated in the battles.

The fierce battle occurred at the city of Karkar on the Oront River in 853 BC. Apparently, the Assyrians could not apply the final defeat of the coalition. Although Karkar fell, but other cities of the coalition - Damascus, Ammon, were not taken. Only in 840 after 16 trips for Euphrates, Assyria managed to achieve a decisive advantage. Khazayl, King Damascus, was broken, rich prey was captured. Although the Damascus itself was again not taken, the military power of the Damascus kingdom was broken. Tir, Sidon and Israeli kingdom hurried to bring tribute to the Assyrian king.

As a result of the capture of numerous treasures, Assyria during this period began community construction. Adntable and decorated the ancient Ashur. But in the 9th century BC. The special attention of the Assyrian kings was drawn to the new Assyrian capital - the city of Calcu (modern nymud). The majestic temples, the palaces of Assyrian kings, powerful fortress walls were built here.

At the end of the 9th and early 8th century BC. The Assyrian state re-entering the period of decline. In constant trips, most of the Assyrian population was involved, as a result of which the country's economy was decaded. In 763 BC. A rebellion broke out in Ashrehre, and other areas and cities of the country were rebelled soon: Arraphu, Guzana. Only in five years, all these reges were suppressed. Inside the state, a fierce struggle was conducted. The trading top wanted world for trade. The military top wanted to continue hikes to capture new production.

Assyria's decline at this time contributed to the above 8th century BC. International situation. In the first place among the states of Front Asia, Urartu was put forward - a young state with a strong army, which was successful in Transcaucasia, in the southeast of Asia Minor and even to the territory of the Assyria itself.

In 746-745 BC BC. After the defeat incurred by Assyria from Urartu in Calcu, the uprising breaks out, as a result of which Toglatpalassar comes to power in Assyria 3. He conducts important reforms. First, he conducted the disagreeption of ex-governments, so that in the hands of any civil servant did not focus too much power. The whole territory was broken into small areas.

The second reform of Tigladpalasar was carried out in the field of military affairs and the army. Previously, Assyria led war by militia, as well as warriors-colonists who received land plots for their service. In the campaign and in peacetime, each warrior supplied himself. Now the permanent army was created, the bodies were set out of recruits and was in full royal supply. The division of troops was enshrined. The number of light infantry has been increased. Connection has become widely used. The shock force of the Assyrian army was fought by combat chariots. Four horses were injected into the chariot. The crew consisted of two or four people. The army was well armed. Panciri, shields, helmets for protecting warriors were used. Lotosses were sometimes closed by "armor" from felt and leather. In the siege of the cities, the taran was used, embankments were built to the fortress walls, subpoples were made. For the protection of troops, the Assyrians built a fortified camp, surrounded by the shaft and moat. All major Assyrian cities had powerful walls capable of withstanding a long siege. Assyrians have already had a certain similarity of the sacchard troops who built bridges, paved the passages in the mountains. At important directions, the Assyrians laid upside down. Assyrian weapons were famous for their work. The army was accompanied by scribes, which led the recording of production and prisoners. The troops included priests, soothsters, musicians. Assyria had a fleet, but he did not play a significant role, since the main wars Assyria led on land. The fleet for Assyria was usually built by the Phoenicians. An important part of the Assyrian army was intelligence. Assyria has had a huge agent in the countries conquered by it, which allowed her to warn the performances. During the war, a lot of spies were sent to the enemy who collected information about the number of enemy troops, its location. Intelligence usually headed the Crown Prince. Assine almost did not use hired troops. There were such military positions - the general (slave-decided), the head of the regiment of Tsarevich, Great Herack (Slave Shaku). The army was divided into detachments of 10, 50, 100, 1000 people. There were banners and standards, usually depicting the Supreme God Ashhura. The greatest number of the Assyrian army reached 120,000 people.

So, Toglatpalasar 3 (745-727. BC) resumed a complase activity. In 743-740 GG BC He defeated the coalition of the North Sverie and Majia rulers and received tribute from 18 kings. Then, in 738 and 735. BC. He made two successful campaigns to the territory of Urartu. In 734-732 BC. A new coalition was organized against Assyria, which included Damascus and Israeli kingdom, many coast cities, Arab Principles and Edom. In the east by 737 BC Tougalpalasar managed to secure in a number of mussel areas. In the south, Babylon was defeated, and Toglatpalassary himself crowned in him the crown of the Babylonian king. The conquered territories were given to the authority of the administration appointed by the Assyrian king. It is under Tigladpalasar "3 began a systematic relocation of conquered peoples, to move and assimilate them. From Syria alone, 73,000 people were resettled.

When Tagoldpalasar receiver 3 - Salmanasar 5 (727-722 BC) a broad conquering policy was continued. Salmanasar 5 tried to limit the rights of rich priests and merchants, but was as a result overthrown by Sargon 2 (722-705 BC). Under it, Assyria defeated the rebels of the Israeli kingdom. After a three-year siege, in 722 BC Assyrians assault took the capital of the kingdom - Samaria, and then it was completely destroyed. Residents were resettled to new places. The Israeli kingdom disappeared. In 714 BC A severe defeat of the state of Urart was applied. The hard struggle went for the Babylon, which had to capture anew several times. In recent years, the reign of Sargon 2 led a hard struggle with the tribes of the Kimmerians.

Son Sargon 2 - Sinaiherib (705-681 BC) also conducted a fierce struggle for Babylon. In the West Assyrians in 701 BC The capital of the Jewish kingdom was besieged - Jerusalem. Jewish king Hyzkia brought Sinaiherib Dan. Assyrians approached the border of Egypt. However, at this time, Sinaiherib was killed as a result of the palace coup and his younger son was ascended to the throne - Asarhaddon (681-669 BC).

Asarhaddon makes hiking north, suppresses the rebellion of the Phoenician cities, claims its power in Cyprus, conquers the northern part of the Arabian Peninsula. In 671, he conquers Egypt and accepts the title of Egyptian Pharaoh. He died during the campaign on the newly rising Babylon.

Asshurbanapal (669 - about 635/627 BC) came to power. BC). It was a very clever, educated person. He owned several languages, able to write, possessed literary talent, acquired mathematical and astronomical knowledge. He created the largest library consisting of 20,000 clay plates. With it, numerous temples and palaces were built and restored.

However, in the foreign policy, Assyria was not so smooth. Egypt rebels (667-663 BC), Cyprus, Wesnosior ownership (Jews, Moab, Ed, Ammon). Urartu and Mann are attacked by Assyria, vs. Assyria fits Elam, the mussel rulers will rebel. Only by 655, Assyria manages to suppress all these speeches and repel the attack, but Egypt's finally disappeared. In 652-648 BC. Again, the rebellious Babylon is rebeling, to which Elims, Arab tribes, Phoenician cities and other conquered peoples are rebuilt. By 639 BC. Most of the speeches were suppressed, but these were the last military successes of Assyria.

Events developed rapidly. In 627 BC. Vafonia disappeared. In 625 BC. - Middi. These two states conclude a union against Assyrian. In 614 BC Pal Ashshur, in 612 - Ninevia. The last Assyrian troops were defeated in battles in Harran (609 BC) and Carkemishe (605 BC). Assyrian to know was destroyed, Assyrian cities were destroyed, the ordinary Assyrian population was mixed with other peoples.

3 thousand years BC E.

For 3-2 thousand years BC. e. In some cities, the developed civilizations appear sewage. The very first channel for waste flow is built in ancient Egypt for 2500 years BC. e.

Began to use sunny clock. Water clocks are also known, which determine the time depending on the amount of water, flowing through the hole in the vessel.

At the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC e. There is a flourishing technique of a period of early civilization. Manufacturing technique in various types of crafts achieves perfection. New forms and types of objects of life and labor instruments are being created. Nowadays, we use many of them, their form has become traditional, such as table, chair, chair, dishes, bricks, sexes, boxes, chisel, knife, sieve, razor, drill, file, bars, scales, saw, needles, Plywood, rope, tin pipes, etc. Most of the listed items have been known before, but the forms of these items were not technically perfect.

2500 BC e.

Monsopotamia builders are beginning to build collectors and pipes with arched overlap for wastewater removal from palaces.

As a major force, they begin to use among other animals of horses and mules. Horses are harnessed into the same skewers as cattle cattle - in the yoke. The harness was put on the neck of the horse, which made it possible to use only a small part of the horsepower.

In China in 2400 BC e. In the province of Henan, the tomb of the aristocrat was built. When excavations, archaeologists have discovered 26 bells in it, each of which is capable of publishing two different notes. When the hammers hit the edges and middle part of the bells, they published tender sounds.

2300 years BC e. In Babylon, there are geographical maps that were carved on clay powders.

2000 years before e.

In China, a "mechanical man" was built - a skillful dancer. There are memories in the ancient treatise Le Tzu.

In the countries of the Ancient East, the need for calculation when exchanging in trade and in construction business leads to the emergence of mathematics. In Egypt, mathematical tasks were recorded on a papyrus, in Babylon - on clay powders. On raw clay signs, they wrote, or rather, they dragged a triangular pointed wand, pressing in clay. After that, tile for strength and durability was burned. These clay plates with clocks reached our time. On the papyrus they wrote ink - the soot divorced in water, to which Gummarabic glue was added. The writing tool was pointed and sacked at the end to hold the ink droplet, the cane feather. On parchment, and then wrote on paper with the help of bird feathers (goose or rose) ink from the juice of ink nuts, iron mood and gumiarabic. In the parchment, these inks absorbed and no longer washed off. They could only scrape. On paper, it was also writing with goose feathers that needed to pre-cut the formation, sharpening and split with a peer knife (hence the name of the knife occurred).

In China, the bamboo and old rags were made of bamboo fibers. For this, the raw materials were crushed, turned into a liquid cleaner and applied it on a flat surface (board or grid), then dried. The dried and polished lips of bamboo or rag mass were the first in the history of mankind paper. Modern paper technology uses the same principles, only instead of bamboo uses chopped wood - cellulose. It was the paper that reached our time as the main media of the information - in the form of books, newspapers, magazines.

China has built a very extensive network of roads, which complemented the water transport system.

Water clock is known in Babylon - Klepsidra. Egyptian water watches, Babylonian and Greeks are based on the principle of leakage: the time intervals were measured by the amount of water flowing out of the hole in the vessel. In China, India and some other countries, there were watches based on the principle of filling, when in an empty semi-supremous vessel with a small hole of a certain diameter floated in a larger vessel and gradually filled with water.

The carts are first equipped with wheels with knitting needles. Models and images of two-wheeled military chariots with primitive disk wheels and four-wheeled carts for the carriage of goods are known. In the carts hardened bulls and mules.

Wheels appear with spokes and bent rim.

In Central Asia begin to produce bronze.

In Central Europe, the first large mining centers arise, where the metal is cast in the form of hryvnia or strips.

1900 BC. e. In Crete, the flourishing of the Minoan civilization. She first presented the world to achievements comparable to the greatest achievements of other ancient civilizations. The palaces began to erect here. Destroyed by the earthquake they were completely rebuilt around 1700 BC. e. This revival is called the "golden age" of the Minoan civilization. The world, social equilibrium, religion, organized handicraft production allowed Crete to subjugate its power all the Mediterranean. Cradians belonged a number of innovations in building business, processing of metals, agriculture. Midway invented writing by going from the hieroglyphic letter to the so-called linear letter, not yet deciphered. The entries were made on clay signs. In Knosse, there was a dazzling palace complex - the focus of civilization. In addition to the cressta, three more palaces were built - in Fest, Malli and the closure, as well as a number of luxurious, cozy villas. The walls of them covered painting. Domestic chambers were spacious and comfortable, proportionate.

1800 BC e.

In Greece on the island of Crete used lever press.

In Babylon, ruled from 1792 to 1750. BC e. King Hammurapi, recorded his laws on the column from the Black Basalt. Inscriptions, represented by embossed men's figures and wedge-shaped signs, were subsequently deciphered. Pole from Basalt was found by French archaeologists in 1901 during the excavation of the ancient city of the Suids.

1700-1470 Minoan civilization reached its zenith. Highly developed agriculture brought surplus harvest to villas and palaces where they were stored, processed to exchange for importing goods. There was a single social system based on blood relationship. The arts and crafts flourished.

Until 1500 BC e.

Significantly reduced the cost of making bronze, from which now, except for weapons and some craft tools, make sickles, hoes, etc. during the production of bronze, copper and tin are obtained, the ratio of these components in the alloy is adjustable.

The production of iron begins by restoring iron ores in the mountains, which refers to the outstanding achievements of humanity. Wood coal is used as fuel. Iron melts at a temperature of 1539 degrees Celsius. This temperature in small mines could not yet. A raffled process of obtaining iron, which for 2 and 1 thousand to n was opened. e. It was distributed throughout the XIV century to our era (with the exception of a crucible method that did not have a significant production value) by the method of iron production. With a cheese process, iron mined on widespread and easily accessible deposits of brown limestone, lake and marsh ores. Metal was restored from iron ore at a temperature of 800-900 degrees Celsius. The process was in the mountains, which were loaded with alternate layers of pre-crushed and burned iron ore and charcoal on open fire. With the help of blowing devices (nozzles and fur, which were first leather, and then wooden and metal) in the mountain, the crude, the genuine air, from where and the name of the entire process went. As a result of the recovery on the bottom of the mountain, a comes of soft welded iron weighing up to 7 kg. The welded iron consisted of a soft metal with voids filled with a hardened slag formed from a blank breed and fuel ash. Slag from the Koma Iron removed the hammer blows. After the forging, iron became quite high, but the performance of the first stoves was small.

Over time, the performance of the furnaces increased due to an increase in the mining space and enhancement of blower devices. This method of iron production has previously mastered the tribes who lived in the mountain part of Armenia and the subordinates of the Hittian princes.

In some sources there are information that before all iron from ores began to be paid in China. The manufacture of iron on a wide scale begins only after 1000 BC. e. This method of obtaining iron influenced the development of civilization. A low-cost method of obtaining metal, which, in the subsequent millennium, was widely used in the manufacture of agricultural instruments and in handicraft production, as a result of which stone tools were ousted. As a result of widespread use of iron in the production of the craft, finally separated from agriculture and the prerequisites are created directly for exchange.

1400 BC e.

In Egypt, there is a method of producing parchment, which for a long time remained the best material for the letter. In Egypt for weighing, scales are used - shamers, which later spread in ancient Rome.

In the northeast of Mount Ararat in the village of Skoghdok Karadag, they received iron artificially from ore and knew the mechanical processing secrets. All technology was kept in deep secrecy, because he had military and economic importance. In those days, iron was worth several times more precious than gold.

1200-1100 years BC. e.

In the Valley of Mexico City (South America), the civilization of Olmekov appeared, which were the first in the chain of civilizations of this region. They did not know the wheels, did not have horses, but they created a special way of life, which received the highest embodiment in the Aztec Empire. Olmeki invented hieroglyphs and calendar, created communications and trade, cities and sculptures.

The trading peoples of Phenicia and Crete appeared the first, the most ancient alphabet. The comparative simplicity of writing and memorizing it contributed to the spread of writing. The alphabet is a system of written signs or letters designed to transmit speech sounds in any language. Alphabet received its name according to the first letters of the Greek alphabet - "Alpha" and "Beta". The Phoenician alphabet has become a significant simplification of the letter that trading demanded. He gave the beginning of the Semitic Alphabets - Aramaic, then Jewish and Arabian, Armenian, Georgian and Indian. Together with Islam, the Arabian alphabet was perceived by most Muslim peoples. Pinikyan borrowed alphabet and ancient Greeks. From the Greek alphabet lead their origin of the Latin and Church-Slavic Glabliolitsa and Cyrillic, which became the basis of the modern Russian alphabet of 33 letters. Cyrillic is one of two (along with the verbs) of the first Slavic alphabet. Named by the name of the Slavic enlightener Kirill.

In the period of the late 2000 BC e. - early 1000 g. e.

In the Transcaucasia began processing iron. At the North Caucasus, iron came from Urartu or Malaya Asia.

Early Astronomy Development Period in China. From this time to 265 N. e. Used sundial, water clock, rotating globes, compasses, gnomones.

About 1000 years BC e. On the territory of modern Mexico, Honduras and Guatemala, the Ancient Mayan civilization was created on the territory of modern Mexico, Honduras and Guatemala. The ruins of the pyramids, temples, palaces, the murals of the Maya people, who created their writing with scientific knowledge in the field of medicine, mathematics, physics are preserved. The number of ancient Maya reached 20 million people. During the heyday of the Empire Maya, the number of cities reached two hundred. Among them were 20 cities with a population of over 50 thousand people. A unique architectural style was developed, in which builders built cities with original pyramids, balls for playing the ball, palaces with stepped arches. There was a wide network of trade routes, methods of intense agriculture were mastered. Of all the ancient civilizations of South and North America, only Maya possessed a writing system. With the help of a complex system of interrelated calendars, they recorded the most important dates, made astronomical forecasts, looked at such distant times, which even modern specialists in the field of cosmology are not taken to judge. Their calculations and records were based on a flexible account system, which included a symbol to designate zero. This symbol was not known to neither Greeks nor Romans. In accuracy of astronomical calculations, they exceeded other modern civilizations.

1000 years BC e.

Wooden pipes are manufactured, which will continue to play an important role in creating all mechanisms and devices for sucking and transporting water, when creating piston pumps and other mechanisms.

For the first time, wooden shovels are used, upholstered at the bottom of the iron plate. Soon Iron Kirk appears.

In Egypt, they used with indigo dye, which up to the new summer remains the main coloring agent.

In ancient Greece, an invented technical instrument is used in winemaking - a press for squeezing juice from grapes.

1000 - 700 BC. e.

In China during the time of Western and Eastern Zhou (VIII-V centuries. BC. E.) Further development received agriculture, art and crafts. In agriculture, crop rotation was developed, a new culture appeared - soybeans. It was brought to the art foundry. From this era, there have been many bronze beautiful products and gadetting bones with letters before our time. Weights flourished, metallurgy, writing. The masters of the epoch of East Zhou were cast from bronze of the product of extraordinary complexity and fright decoration. Silver and gold products - vessels for drinking and food, necklaces, belt buckles, other luxury items surprise the fineness of work and sophistication.

In West Asia, in the south of Italy, in the Balkan Peninsula, iron in the south of Romania and in Central Europe. With the help of iron secrets on the European continent there was a cutting down of the forest, and iron tools and labor tools contributed to the development of agriculture.

9 century BC e. On the relief of the Palace of Sinyariba in Ninevia, a ladder-stepladder is depicted. The stairs become an important utility tool not only in construction, but also in a mining, since mining developments began to be deeply in the ground, in mines.

8th century BC e.

In Greek polishes, and later in the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, agriculture has reached a higher level of development than in the countries of the Ancient East. In Greece, it was the main occupation of the majority of residents. In addition to slave labor, it used the work of free landowners and rumbers. Installed calendar of agricultural work. The soil fell by manure, plowing grass, burning straw on the fields, used green couples. Wheat sowed, barley, shell, sesame, peas, lentils, beans, grown olive, grapes, figs, quince, grenades. Much attention was paid to viticulture. On the irrigation lands used all sorts of water lifting machines. For plowing, a primitive plow was used, which burned the earth, but did not turn it over. The plow was made of one piece of wood or several parts. With the propagation of iron begin to plow a plow with an iron loem. In Greece, the plow, which turns over the Earth is known from 5 c. BC e.

In Babylon, the driving road was paved by limestone squares. The gaps between the masonry were poured asphalt.

For the first time depicted by Assyrians on the relief of the 8th century. BC e. Blocks and cams, although these devices were known before.

When excavations in Nineveh (the capital of Assyria), a bell made from bronze for the first time.

About 700 years BC e.

In Assyria, the largest structure was built, where the arch was applied. This construction was a canal for supplying water built by King Sinacherib. The channel is 80 kilometers long to ensure the water of the capital of Assyria Ninevei and the King Palace in Harsabad was built on 13 years. The material for the construction was the limestone.

In Ninevei and Jerusalem were cut into the rocks of the tunnel with a length of over 500 m, designed for waste and garbage.

The most ancient metal currency of the bars were replaced by coins, first litters, then chased. It is assumed that the first coins were made in China and Egypt. Coins remain a payment tool until the recent past.

7 century BC e.

In Byzantium, consumed in the middle of the VII century. In hostilities "Greek fire" consisted of nitrate, mountain resin and flaxseed oil. In warriors with swords and arrows, he instilled superstitious fear.

In Greece, the first astronomical theories arose. The first models of the solar system were created. Fales considered the Earth with a flat disk floating on the water.

In Greece, the regular mining of iron ores and non-ferrous metals is distributed. The main centers of Greek metallurgy become samos, potnos, Corinth, Lesbos, Laconika, Aegina.

Babylon was considered the largest and rich city of the Ancient East.

The inventor of the process of the soldering of iron (before that used riveting) is often called the Greek iron from Chios Island. Apparently, the soldering technique was known before. High level reached blacksmithing craft. In the forge stood horn with manual double air-jammed furs. The central place was occupied by iron or bronze anvil. The blacksmiths used hammers, ticks, some of which were reminded of large tweezers, hinged tongs, chisels, vice, drills.

Along with the previously known non-ferrous metals and alloys - copper, gold and silver - began to apply antimony and brass.

For processing bronze and copper, casting, forging, stamping, chasoker, engraving, silvering, gilding, inlay, soldering, drawing are used. High art casting from bronze is achieved by artisans in ancient Greece. In the workshop there was a melting furnace with a special chamber separated from the furnace. A large clay vessel with metal was placed in this chamber for smelting.

Known flat plane grinded lens from crystal. Deda on excavations in the capital of Assyria Ninevia. The use of lenses in the subsequent millennium contributed to the development of optical instruments, the invention of sub-sieves pipes, microscope, etc.

Information about existing wooden and stone bridges across wide rivers. Length of the bridge over r. Ether in Babylon was over 300 m.

About 600 years BC e.

In Babylon, King Nebuchadnezzar was built the palace, which is called the "Hanging Gardens of Semiramides". For magnificent gardens with rare trees and fragrant colors, this construction is named one of the seven wonders of the world. During the reign of this king, much attention was paid to the builders to strengthen the walls. As a rule, the walls of the structures were erected from the layers of burned brick on a solution of natural asphalt and from raw bricks on clay. Brick raw was used for inner walls, burned - for external. Brick laid on a mastic from a mixture of sand and asphalt. In some cases, solid seams were made in the form of the asphalt layer, the clay layer every four rows of bricks was made, then cane mats were laid on top of the asphalt and then all this was repeated.

For the first time apply hollow casting when casting large bronze statues.

When water pumping, a waterproken wheel was used, from the circumference of which vessels were located. They were buried in them. The wheel rotated, and the water rose up. This device made it possible to produce water in a large volume. It played a big role and created prerequisites for the invention of the water wheel.

With the help of rotating stone millstones begin to grind cereals. This device is important for the history of the development of technology in that it was in this adaptation in the future I managed to replace the manual force of the force of animals for the first time, and later to use water energy.

In Greece, the philosopher Falez Miletsky (approx. 625 - approx. 540 BC) for the first time determined that amber, grated matter, attracts light items. Thus, the first manifestations of electricity were revealed.

Pythagoras in his astronomical theory express an opinion about the ferrousness of the Earth.

Aristotle (384-322 BC) - Greek scientist said that Fales first discovered such a fact as attracting iron sawdust and pieces of iron by some types of iron ores. According to other sources, magnetism is first seen in China, and in 2000 g bd. e.

The lathe is invented. The invention is attributed to the aodore of Samos.

The Babylonian tower was constructed, the foundation of which was represented at the length of each side in 90 m. The height of the tower was 90 m. At the top of it was built a height of 15 m.

7 - 6 century BC. e. In Assyria, with the king, Adada Nirara was built a long and very wide bridge over the old euro channel. Its length was 112 meters, and the width is 21 meters. He was a series of supports from burnt bricks, standing at a distance of 9 meters one from another, with spans, blocked by two layers of cedar logs. Out of logs were covered on top of a stone pavement. Such an approach was used by the ancient builders and for the construction of large buildings. To increase their width, one or two rows of columns were put, the beams were placed on them, and on runs - coverage beams. In many cases, the size of the temples increased by installing only one column in the center.

6 century BC e.

In Persia, an extensive road network is created. The length of one of the highway amounted to 2500 km.

Persian King Cyrus organized regular courier mail on the main road roads. Special courtying stations were built to change horses. Such a mail delivery practice is known in the Roman Empire, and later this sample of mail delivery is being implemented into practice and in the XVI century. n. e.

Greek philosopher Aximandre (approx. 610-546 BC) invented quadrant, which subsequently contributed to the development of astronomy.

In ancient Greece, mathematics begins to develop - the science, built on strict logical evidence, as well as astronomy. By this time refers to the construction of mathematical theories, as well as the first astronomical theories.

The Egyptians have learned to distinguish the planets from the stars. On the arches of the temples and tombs they portrayed the cards of the starry world.

In ancient Rome, the Cloac Maxim Channel was built, which is serving the Romans to our time.

In ancient Greece and Rome, the production of clay products quickly developed, a large number of artisans were engaged in them. They made dishes, lamps, artistic ceramics, terracotta figurines. All the dishes were made on a pottery circle. Up to 5 V. BC e. Greek artistic ceramics was painted, the embossed ceramics is spread later. From the end of the 5th century BC. e. Extremely diverse in shape and prescription ceramic vases began to cover with black lacquer with a black tint. Decorated with ornaments using special stamps and matrices.

In ancient Greece, marble is mined in large quantities. Open marble developments are known near Athens and underground development on Paros and Naxos Islands. Removed marble or in the form of rectangular blocks, or in the form of pieces of incorrect form, depending on the structure of the layers. Globs of marble were treated with a sledgehammer and chisel, and then shuled by pointed chisel.

In construction machinery in Rome in 6-1 V.V. BC e. Adjourn the Greek Orders. At this time, the Romans begin to create arched and vaulted structures in the construction technique, large public buildings erect. A giant amphitheater with the Colosseum with a length of 187.5, 156.7 width and up to 46.6 m, which accommodated up to 90 thousand people was constructed.

In the construction engineering of ancient Greece and Rome, clay was widely used, from which raw baked bricks were made. For the manufacture of raw bricks, the clay was purified from solid enclosures and stirred with small straw vessels. Then from this mass in spring or autumn, when a more uniform drying was provided, a brick was formed. After forming, it was kept for 2 years and only then used in construction. The outer walls of the buildings were laid out in some brick, the inner partitions - in the Pollipich. In addition to clay in construction, limestone, marble of a variety of colors, sandstone and volcanic origin materials were used. Granite and porphyr went to the manufacture of whole columns and facing plates for walls and floors. The binder served the lime of the three-year-old age, which consisted of one part of the limestone test and three parts of the sand. Wooden, clay and stone walls were plastering, applying plaster solutions of plaster. The plaster solution was applied to the surface with several layers and after drying it acquired high strength. The disgraced coating layer was painted, then the brush was applied with a lacquered film of white melted wax dissolved in oil. It ensured the durability of stucco coloring.

550 BC e. In ancient Greece in the city of Ephesus, famous architects Harsphon, his son Metagen, Peonitis and Demetrius, built one of the seven wonders of the world - the temple of Artemis.

530 BC e.

In ancient Rome and ancient Greece, large centralized water supply systems are built. In the city, water was served by gravity through the channels, special ceramic pipes in wells from which it was raised with the gate. When crossing the valleys and ravines, the channels were packed by special bridges - aqueduct. Some aqueducts have survived to this day and are samples of ancient engineering art. When construction, arched construction was used. Water in the pipes came to the palaces and houses of nobles and rich citizens, as well as to baths, fountains and pools.

In Greece, the Builder Evpalinos on the island of Samos built a tunnel in the rock with a length of over 1000 m for water supply. However, in the construction of water pipes succeeded the most Romans.

Mineral mining is widely conducted, especially in ancient Greece and Rome. Over thousands of slaves worked on some mines. In Greece, the most famous Lavria mines are most famous, they mined a lead shine from which lead was paid.

In Rome for the construction of cities, roads, water supply systems, as well as to meet the demand of handicraft production, a large amount of metal and building material is required. The work of numerous slaves provided Rome Iron, Copper, Gold and Silver. During extraction used Kaylo, chisel, scrap, sledgehammer, wedge. On the surface of the ore was transported manually in baskets or leather bags. They painted water.

The mine development of ore begins. Separate mines reached the depth of more than 100 m. In some mines, the ore raised in Badjah with a manual gate.

520 BC e. According to the then ideas about the land, the Greek Hecatiaios Mietie (560/550 - 485 BC. Er) is drawn one of the first cards of the earth's surface.

5 V. BC e.

In Egypt, Phenicia, Ancient Greece use abacus (from the Greek ABAX - a board) - a countable tool, which is a plate, covered with a layer of sand. There were lines on it with a sharp stick and pebbles and bones were moved in the resulting columns (as in Russian accounts) for arithmetic computing. In ancient Rome, Abak was called Calculi or Abaculi. Later from this word, the Latin calculatore occurred (calculated) and Calculus (calculus), calculation.

In the farming of Greece, a real plow is used, which turns over the plasters of the Earth. Later in Italy, an improved plow with wheels and a cutter are used. Bread stamped with sickles and braids.

Persian king Darius completed the canal between the Red and Mediterranean seas. According to some sources, the construction of the canal began to 1200 BC. e. The canal was operated several centuries, repaired several times. From 9 c. BC e. The movement of ships on it is suspended, afterwards it was closed and abandoned. In the XIX century Instead of the old channel, a new, Suez canal was built. The second famous channel of the ancient world was the "kings canal", connecting the Ephrath River and Tiger, with a length of 400 km.

With the development of cities and trade of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, wheel transport is widely distributed.

In the Roman Empire there is a large-scale construction of roads and bridges. 372 large roads were built, some of which combined Rome with its provinces. The roads were built, as a rule, from gravel, cobweb and dashest stone bonded by a lime solution. The thickness of the road coating reached 1 m. The famous indian road was paved from stone octagons, which gave her special strength. The profile of the road was shown, on both sides it was built by stone parapets and almost through each kilometer put stone poles. In the swampy places built roads with wooden coating.

The elevation time of Athens. The flourishing of Greek architecture and construction contributes to the flourishing of Greek architecture and construction. Greek architects belongs to one of the most important achievements of architecture - the creation of a warrant (regular system of architectural forms): Doric, Ionical, Corinthian. Takes are being developed for the harmonic proportionality of individual parts of buildings.

Blacksmiths use hinge ticks.

The processing of cotton, which has been known before and earlier.

The scissors used for shearing sheep, cutting and cutting matter, as well as for having hair and mustache.

In the Military Technique of Athens the main military equipment was the fleet, which had almost 300 ships. For maritime fighting, combat ships were built, in which the noses were covered with copper. Transport ships served for the transport of troops. The most common type of military Greek ship was three-stage trielers - a high-speed, long ship with good maneuverability. A ship was located up to 170 rowers. The number of the rest of the crew, including soldiers for the landing, reached 200 people.

Carpenters use frame saws with an iron cutting part.

Protective wheeled mechanisms and gear gear begin to appear. The inventors of these devices were considered ancient Greek scientists Archimedes (approx. 287-212 BC) or Geron Alexandria (I century BC). In a later period, gear crankshafts become one of the main elements of many mechanisms and machines.

Silver mining is underway in Greece in mines, the depth of which reaches 120 m. At least 1000 slaves were at mining. Shakhty ventilated naturally. Sometimes they satisfied special ventilation galleries. Mountain production lit into small clay lamps in which oil poured. Lamps were installed in special niches.