James Watson and Francis Scream. Who discovered the double helix of DNA
The discovery of the existence of a duplicated DNA helix proved to be a turning point in biology. It was made by the Englishman Francis Crick and the American James Watson. In 1962, scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize.
They are among the most intelligent people on the planet. Scream made many discoveries in various fields, not limited to genetics. Watson earned a number of sayings notoriety, but this more characterizes him as an extraordinary person.
Childhood
Francis Crick was born in 1916 in England at Northampton. His father was a successful businessman and had a shoe factory. He went to a regular high school. After the war, family income decreased significantly, the head decided to move the family to London. Francis graduated from Mill Hill School, where he was fond of mathematics, physics and chemistry. He later studied at London University College and is recognized as a bachelor of science.
Then on another continent his future colleague, James Watson, was born. From childhood, he was different from ordinary children, even then James was prophesied a bright future. He was born in Chicago in 1928. His parents surrounded him with love and joy.
The teacher in the first grade noted his mind, inappropriate to age. After 3rd grade, he took part in an intellectual quiz for children on the radio. Watson showed amazing abilities. He will later be invited to the Four-Year University of Chicago, where he will be interested in ornithology. Having a bachelor's degree, the young man decides to continue his studies at Bloomington University in Indiana.
Interest in science
At Indiana University, Watson is involved in genetics and comes to the attention of biologist Salvador Lauria and brilliant geneticist J. Meller. The collaboration resulted in a dissertation on the effects of X-rays on bacteria and viruses. After a brilliant defense, James Watson becomes a Ph.D.
Further studies of bacteriophages will occur in distant Denmark - the University of Copenhagen. The scientist is actively working on a DNA model and the study of its properties. His colleague is a talented biochemist Herman Kalkar. However, a fateful meeting with Francis Crick will occur at the University of Cambridge. Novice scientist Watson, who is only 23 years old, will invite Francis to his laboratory for collaboration.
Before World War II, Crick studied the viscosity of water in various states. Later, he had to work for the Naval Ministry - developing mines. A turning point will be the reading of the book by E. Schrödinger. The author's ideas prompted Francis to study biology. Since 1947, he has been working in the Cambridge laboratory, studying X-ray diffraction, organic chemistry, and biology. Its leader was Max Perutz, who studies the structure of proteins. Crick has an interest in defining the chemical basis of the genetic code.
DNA decryption
In the spring of 1951, a symposium was held in Naples, where James met with English scientist Maurice Wilkins and researcher Rosalyn Franklin, who also conduct DNA analysis. They determined that the structure of the cage is similar to a spiral staircase - it has a double spiral shape. Their experimental data prompted Watson and Crick to further research. They decide to determine the composition of nucleic acids and seek the necessary funding - subsidies from the National Society for the Study of Infantile Paralysis.
James watson In 1953, they will inform the world about the structure of DNA and present a ready-made model of the molecule.
In just 8 months, two brilliant scientists will summarize the results of their experiments with available data. In a month, a three-dimensional model of DNA will be made of balls and cardboard.
The discovery was announced by the director of the laboratory Cavendish Lawrence Bragg at the Belgian conference, which took place on April 8. But the importance of the discovery was not recognized immediately. Only on April 25, after the publication of an article in the scientific journal Nature, biologists and other laureates appreciated the value of new knowledge. The event was attributed to the greatest discovery of the century.
In 1962, the British Wilkins and Crick with American Watson were nominated for the Nobel Prize in medicine. Unfortunately, Rosalind Franklin died 4 years ago and was not among the applicants. There was a scandal about this, since the model used Franklin's experimental data, although it did not give official permission. Scream and Watson worked closely with her partner Wilkins, and Rosalind herself did not recognize the importance of her experiments for medicine until the end of her life.
Watson erected a monument in New York for the opening. Wilkins and Crick did not receive this honor, as they did not have American citizenship.
Career
After the discovery of the DNA structure, Watson and Crick diverge. James becomes a senior fellow at the Department of Biology at the University of California, and later a professor. In 1969, he was offered to head the Long Island Laboratory of Molecular Biology. The scientist refuses to work at Harvard, where he worked since 1956. The rest of his life, he will devote to neuroscience, studying the effect of viruses and DNA on cancer. Under the guidance of a scientist, the laboratory reached a new level of research quality, its funding increased significantly. Gold Spring Harbor has become the best global center for the study of molecular biology. From 1988 to 1992, Watson actively participated in a number of projects to study the human genome.
Scream after world recognition to become the head of the biological laboratory in Cambridge. In 1977, he moved to San Diego, California, to study the mechanisms of dreams and vision.
Francis Creek In 1983, with the mathematician Gr. He suggested by Mutchison: dreams are the brain's ability to free itself from the useless and excessive associations that were accumulated during the day. Scientists have called dreams the prevention of nervous system overload.
In 1981, Francis Crick’s book, Life As It Is: Its Origin and Nature, was published, where the author suggests the origin of life on Earth. According to him, the first inhabitants on the planet were microorganisms from other space objects. This explains the similarity of the genetic code of all living objects. The scientist died in 2004 from oncology. He was cremated, and the dust scattered over the Pacific Ocean.
Francis Creek In 2004, Watson became the rector, but in 2007 he had to resign from this position for speaking about the genetic relationship of origin (race) and level of intelligence. The scientist loves to provocatively and abusively comment on the work of his colleagues, Franklin was no exception. Some statements were perceived as attacks on obese people and homosexuals.
In 2007, Watson released his autobiography, Avoid Boring. In 2008, he delivered a public lecture at Moscow State University. Watson is called the first person with a fully decrypted genome. Currently, the scientist is working on the search for genes responsible for mental illness.
Crick and Watson opened up new possibilities for the development of medicine. It is impossible to overestimate the importance of their scientific activity.
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James Dewey Watson (April 6, 1928, Chicago, Illinois) - American biologist. Winner of the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine - together with Francis Crick and Maurice H.F. Wilkins for discovering the structure of a DNA molecule.
From childhood, thanks to his father, James was fascinated by observations of the life of birds. At the age of 12, Watson participated in the popular Quiz Kids radio quiz for intelligent young people. Thanks to the liberal policies of University of Chicago President Robert Hutchins, he entered university at the age of 15. After reading Erwin Schrödinger's book “What is life from the point of view of physics?”, Watson changed his professional interests from studying ornithology to studying genetics. In 1947, he received a bachelor's degree in zoology from the University of Chicago.
In 1951 he entered the Cavendish Laboratory of the University of Cambridge, where he studied the structure of proteins. There he met the physicist Francis Crick, who was interested in biology.
In 1952, Watson and Crick began working on modeling the structure of DNA. Using the Chargaff Rules and roentgenograms, Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins built a two-spiral model.
For 25 years he led the Cold Spring Harbor Research Institute, where he conducted research on cancer genetics.
From 1989 to 1992, he was the organizer and leader of the Human Genome project for decoding the sequence of human DNA, at the same time he led the secret project Faust
In 2007, he spoke out in favor of the fact that representatives of different races have different intellectual abilities, which is due to genetics. In connection with the violation of political correctness, they demanded a public apology from him, and in October 2007, Watson officially resigned as head of the laboratory where he worked. However, he continues to lead research in the same laboratory.
According to the Independent, a study of the DNA of James Watson himself revealed a high concentration of African and, to a lesser extent, Asian genes. It was later suggested that the analysis of the genome contained significant errors.
He is currently working on the search for genes for mental illness.
Books (3)
Avoid tediousness. The lessons of life lived in science
The famous biologist James Watson became famous for the fact that in 1953 he discovered (along with Francis Crick) the structure of DNA, for which he received the Nobel Prize. Watson later became the first director of the National Center for Human Genome Research (USA) and led the famous Human Genome project.
In his autobiographical book, Avoid Boring, Watson writes about his famous discovery, how American science functions, and the lessons that he was able to learn from his own life experiences, as well as from the experience of observing other people. It is this last circumstance that makes Watson's book not only fascinating, but also very useful:
“Avoid tediousness” is both a comprehensive memoir of a great scientist and a kind of manual for achieving success in science. Talking about his life path, the author gives the reader practical and practical advice on how to make a successful career in science and, perhaps, one day to make an outstanding discovery for himself.
Molecular biology of the gene
The book belongs to the pen of Nobel laureate J. Watson, occupies a special place in the literature on molecular biology.
She is an excellent guide in this new, booming field of biology and summarizes the latest data. The principles of the chromosome theory of heredity, the interaction of biologically active molecules, the structure and function of membranes, the role of various metabolic regulators, the viral theory of cancer, issues and tasks of genetic engineering are considered.
The book is written exclusively clearly, logically and read with great interest.
Double helix
The author of the book is a prominent American scientist James D. Watson. Everyone who followed the latest achievements of world biology must have heard his name next to the names of the English Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins. These three scientists, who received the Nobel Prize in 1962, made one of the most significant discoveries in the biology of the 20th century: they established the structure of a DNA molecule - the genetic material of a cell that stores information about the hereditary traits of the body.
The Double Helix, an autobiographical novel in which Watson details how he and his co-authors arrived at this discovery, introduces the reader to the “kitchen” of great science. The laid-back manner of presentation, vivid characteristics of the characters - well-known American and European scholars, figurative literary language will attract the attention of not only scientists, but also lovers of popular science literature.
James Dewey Watson (born James Dewey Watson, born April 6, 1928, Chicago, Illinois) is an American biologist. 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine - together with Francis Crick and Maurice H.F. Wilkins for discovering the structure of a DNA molecule.
From childhood, thanks to his father, James was fascinated by observations of the life of birds. At the age of 12, Watson participated in the popular Quiz Kids radio quiz for intelligent young people. Thanks to the liberal policies of University of Chicago President Robert Hutchins, he entered university at the age of 15. After reading Erwin Schrödinger's book “What is life from the point of view of physics?”, Watson changed his professional interests from studying ornithology to studying genetics. In 1947, he received a bachelor's degree in zoology from the University of Chicago.
In 1951 he entered the Cavendish Laboratory of the University of Cambridge, where he studied the structure of proteins. There he met the physicist Francis Crick, who was interested in biology.
In 1952, Watson and Crick began working on modeling the structure of DNA. Using the Chargaff Rules and roentgenograms, Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins built a two-spiral model. The results were published on May 30, 1953 in the journal Nature. For 25 years he led the Cold Spring Harbor Research Institute, where he conducted research on cancer genetics. From 1989 to 1992, he was the organizer and leader of the Human Genome project for decoding the sequence of human DNA, at the same time he led the secret project Faust.
In 2007, he spoke out in favor of the fact that representatives of different races have different intellectual abilities, which is due to genetics. In connection with the violation of political correctness, they demanded a public apology from him, and in October 2007, Watson officially resigned as head of the laboratory where he worked. However, he continues to lead research in the same laboratory.
According to the Independent, a study of the DNA of James Watson himself revealed a high concentration of African and, to a lesser extent, Asian genes. It was later suggested that the analysis of the genome contained significant errors.
He is currently working on the search for genes for mental illness.
In 62 years of the last century, young scientists Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins received the prestigious Nobel Prize - the “life code” of the DNA DNA code appeared to the world: the researchers found that DNA has a double helix structure, like a spiral staircase in the huts - and that’s such a seemingly simple structure, as the group only then believed, allows you to divide the cells of the body, save and transmit the accumulated genetic information in time ...
Not so long ago, James Watson visited Moscow ... and among other things, meeting with reporters, personally shared interesting observations from life ...
10 generally simple rules that help the body and intellect not to be wasted on the hand of Christ - to remain useful; and Watson tries not to forget about them:
10 important rules for the life of James Watson
Such a strange statement seems to be:
1. "Do not fight with big boys and with dogs."
the scientist comments:
"... so I wrote in my book" Avoid Boring. " And he always tried to adhere to this rule of life: that is, simply do not get involved in those matters where you certainly will not win.
In a word, you should not waste time, effort and nerves in the end to earn disappointment ”...
For some reason, I personally immediately recalled the conversations on social networks - on Facebook, for example - where, in principle, “winning” in some kind of gossip is not realistic. However, it’s very real to get a lot of disappointments.
2. Do not hesitate to seek help and do not waste time expecting that "they themselves will come and they will give everything."
“You don’t have to sit in the corner, cry and try to prove to the whole world that you can do anything,” says Nobel laureate James Watson. “It’s more important to solve the problem quickly with someone’s help than slowly alone.”
But what about M.A. Bulgakov, we ask ?? “... they themselves will offer, and he will give everything ...» ?
The answer is simple: ... there is mysticism ... and here science and capitalism are thoroughly relevant knowledge))
But seriously, then this is competition (and maybe even healthy) because it is determined by activity.
However, more often it happens that you ask for help, you don’t want to whine - all one will prefer the choice and grant of a guarantor of a close relative!
But all these times of fraud quickly end: for they do not have logic, constancy, and therefore - the ability to some extent of a long life in general ...
3. Listen to the advice of only those people who have their own experience on this issue.
“Look for brilliant friends, experts, from whom you have something to learn.
I have always been surrounded by people whom I considered smarter than myself. And I was happy: they can be asked a question and they will answer ”
Clearly following this rule - to get closer to "smart people" - James Watson around 51 of the same last century began working at Cambridge University with a colleague (albeit a physicist) Francis Crick, who is also " interested in all the important issues» that there is no urine it was required to ask someone ... there was no choice but to find a like-minded defendant ...
And already somewhere in the year 53 from the Christmas of the last century - together they published the world's most famous scientific concept about the spiral structure of DNA.
4. No hypocrisy in relations with others.
The scientist believes this: “Either tell the truth, or nothing.
At the same time, you need to know the principle of this measure: publicly criticizing the one who decides your fate is not the right decision. ”
This is a controversial statement ... and I will refrain from commenting: well, unless I envy the professor’s lyrical endurance ...
Watson probably doesn’t write poetry, but in vain (in my lyrical manner) - they would read! The people very much respect the pastoral Odes of all kinds of laureatus: professors, academics, famous housewives (which is generally reasonable, although meaningless) ... but very simple! pita, if he happened to be in a square with his scroll ... they would let a tramp go over bumps! they say that a fool without a degree and a mind starts soulful songs, but his heart skips ..! ... And the gusli will ripple on the pavement, and the genius himself - the head and legs will hardly be taken away ...
And here is the evidence:
5. Read books as much as possible!
“My childhood was in the midst of the Great Depression in the USA, we didn’t have much variety on the table, but books have always been the main luxury in the house, - recalls Watson. - I, like my parents, read a lot. He loved Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Turgenev. At school, we read more such books than textbooks, it was a special type of education. And then I became convinced: great books give rise to new ideas! ... which I am reporting to you, - the professor smiled softly.
For example, when I tried to analyze the reasons for my success, I realized that this is knowledge, ”says the author of the most important discovery in the history of mankind. - Of course, ideas are necessary for breakthroughs, but their basis, foundation is precisely knowledge. And in order to gain knowledge, you need to read as much as possible.
Books have been my main interlocutor all my life. And my partner Scream (explanation: co-author of the opening of the spiral ...) also read all the time. Now I spend at least 3-4 hours reading books every day. ”
A third of a working day reading books - however!
I’ll also go to the librarians, because nowhere else will you be so close to bookshelves)
6. Ideas are always more important than facts - remember this when studying and working.
“In most cases, people are interested in WHAT happened, but in fact it’s important to understand WHY this happened,” emphasizes Nobel laureate James Watson. - To think, analyze, work with facts, and not to remember / describe them - this is the main thing both in study and in work. Remember that an idea is always more important than a fact. ”
7. You cannot use the precautionary principle - to limit something to stay ahead (except in cases of knowingly losing from rule 1), moving forward is impossible without risk.
Interesting reflection:
“Only risk allows us to develop, move forward human civilization! - otherwise Gagarin would not have flown into space, and Columbus would not have crossed the Atlantic and had not discovered America. Try it first, and if you see a real threat, then introduce reasonable restrictions. ” - so the professor believes regarding some limitations of research on the part of the authorities.
But the scientist gave such an unexpected answer to the question of how he, constantly immersed in work (still a diver in the depths of the chaos of the sea), traveled around the world ... managed to save his family - they were together with his wife Elizabeth Levy since 68 (and this already serious half a century has passed) and the couple has two sons:
8. Think about how to solve pressing problems, and do not focus on family relationships.
“I’m constantly thinking not about my family, but about the future, about how to solve problems, and my wife writes good books” - the scientist concluded weightily: well, that is precisely why the husband!
9. Strive for healthy longevity.
“I would very much like to live up to 100 years and more, because it is very interesting what will happen in science, what other discoveries will be made - but I, of course, do not want to be sick and weak.”
professor Watson is currently working on developments for the treatment of neurodegenerative and oncological diseases, and his colleagues from around the world are working on technologies to slow down the aging of the human body in order to thoroughly prevent severe age-related diseases.
Frances Creek, James Watson
(1916–2004) (born in 1928)
The English molecular biologist Francis Harry Compton Creek was born June 8, 1916 in Northampton and was the eldest of two sons of Harry Compton Creek, a wealthy shoe manufacturer, and Anna Elizabeth (Wilkins) Creek. After spending his childhood in Northampton, he attended high school classical. During the economic crisis that followed the First World War, the family’s business fell into disrepair, and Francis’s parents moved to London. As a student at Mill Hill School, Crick showed great interest in physics, chemistry, and mathematics. In 1934, he entered University College London to study physics and graduated after three years, receiving the title of Bachelor of Science. Completing his education at University College, a young scientist addressed the issues of viscosity of water at high temperatures; this work was interrupted in 1939 by the outbreak of World War II.
In 1940, Scream married Ruth Dorin Dodd; they had a son. They divorced in 1947, and two years later, Scream married Odile Speed. From his second marriage, he had two daughters.
During the war years, Creek was engaged in the creation of mines in the research laboratory of the British Navy. For two years after the end of the war, he continued to work in this ministry, and it was then that he read Erwin Schrödinger's famous book What Is Life? Physical aspects of a living cell ”, published in 1944. In the book, Schrödinger asks the question: “How can the spatio-temporal events occurring in a living organism be explained from the standpoint of physics and chemistry?”
The ideas presented in the book influenced Crick so much that he, intending to study particle physics, switched to biology. With the support of Archibald W. Will Creek, he received a scholarship from the Medical Research Council and in 1947 began working at the Strangeway Laboratory in Cambridge. Here he studied biology, organic chemistry, and X-ray diffraction methods used to determine the spatial structure of molecules.
Under the leadership of Max Perutz, Crick studied the molecular structure of proteins, and therefore he became interested in the genetic code for the sequence of amino acids in protein molecules. About twenty essential amino acids serve as monomeric units from which all proteins are built. Studying the issue that he defined as the “border between the living and the nonliving,” Crick tried to find the chemical basis of genetics, which, he suggested, could be embedded in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
In 1951, twenty-three-year-old American biologist James D. Watson invited Crick to work at the Cavendish Laboratory.
James DeVey Watson was born April 6, 1928 in Chicago (Illinois) in the family of James D. Watson, a businessman, and Gene (Mitchell) Watson and was their only child. In Chicago, he received primary and secondary education. It soon became apparent that James was an unusually gifted child, and he was invited to the radio to participate in the Quiz for Kids program. After only two years of high school, Watson received a scholarship in 1943 to study at the experimental four-year college at the University of Chicago, where he showed interest in studying ornithology. After becoming a bachelor of science at the University of Chicago in 1947, he continued his education at Bloomington Indiana University.
By this time, Watson became interested in genetics and began training in Indiana under the guidance of a specialist in this field Herman J. Möller and bacteriologist Salvador Luria. Watson wrote a dissertation on the influence of X-rays on the reproduction of bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) and received in 1950 a Ph.D. A subsidy from the National Research Society allowed him to continue research on bacteriophages at the University of Copenhagen in Denmark. There he studied the biochemical properties of bacteriophage DNA. However, as he later recalled, experiments with phage began to weigh him down; he wanted to know more about the true structure of DNA molecules that genetics so enthusiastically talked about.
Genetics as a science arose in 1866, when Gregor Mendel formulated the position that “elements”, later called genes, determine the inheritance of physical properties. Three years later, the Swiss biochemist Friedrich Mischer discovered nucleic acid and showed that it is contained in the cell nucleus. At the threshold of the new century, scientists have discovered that genes are located on the chromosomes, the structural elements of the cell nucleus. In the first half of the 20th century, biochemists determined the chemical nature of nucleic acids, and in the forties, researchers found that genes are formed by one of these acids, DNA. It has been proven that genes, or DNA, control the biosynthesis (or formation) of cellular proteins called enzymes, and thus control the biochemical processes in the cell.
By 1944, American biologist Oswald Avery, working at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, provided evidence that genes are made of DNA. This hypothesis was confirmed in 1952 by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase. Although it was clear that DNA controls the basic biochemical processes that take place in the cell, neither the structure nor the function of the molecule were known.
In the spring of 1951, while at a symposium in Naples, Watson met Maurice G.F. Wilkins, an English researcher. Wilkins and Rosalyn Franklin, a colleague at King's College, University of Cambridge, performed an X-ray analysis of DNA molecules and showed that they are a double helix resembling a spiral staircase. The data they received led Watson to the idea of \u200b\u200binvestigating the chemical structure of nucleic acids. The National Society for the Study of Infantile Paralysis has allocated a subsidy.
In October 1951, the scientist went to the Cavendish Laboratory of the University of Cambridge to study the spatial structure of proteins together with John C. Kendrew. There he met Francis Crick, a physicist who was interested in biology and was writing a doctoral dissertation at that time.
Subsequently, they established close creative contacts. Starting in 1952, based on the early studies of Charghaf, Wilkins, and Franklin, Crick and Watson decided to try to determine the chemical structure of DNA.
They knew that there are two types of nucleic acids - DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA), each of which consists of a monosaccharide of the pentose group, phosphate and four nitrogen bases: adenine, thymine (uracil in RNA), guanine and cytosine. Over the next eight months, Watson and Crick summarized the results with those already available, reporting on the structure of DNA in February 1953. A month later, they created a three-dimensional model of a DNA molecule made of balls, pieces of cardboard and wire.
According to the Crick-Watson model, DNA is a double helix consisting of two deoxyribose phosphate chains connected by base pairs in the same way as stairs. Through hydrogen bonds, adenine combines with thymine, and guanine with cytosine. Using this model, it was possible to trace the replication of the DNA molecule itself.
The model allowed other researchers to clearly visualize DNA replication. The two chains of the molecule are separated in places of hydrogen bonds like the opening of a zipper, after which a new one is synthesized on each half of the previous DNA molecule. The sequence of bases acts as a matrix, or sample, for a new molecule.
In 1953, Crick and Watson completed the creation of a DNA model. This allowed them, together with Wilkins, nine years later to share the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for discoveries regarding the molecular structure of nucleic acids and their significance for the transmission of information in living systems."
A.V. Engström from the Karolinska Institute said at the award ceremony: “The discovery of the spatial molecular structure of DNA is extremely important, because it outlines the possibilities for understanding the smallest details of the general and individual characteristics of all life. Engström noted that “deciphering the double helical structure of deoxyribonucleic acid with a specific pairing of nitrogenous bases opens up fantastic possibilities for unraveling the details of the control and transmission of genetic information.”
A year later, with a little Watson was appointed senior fellow at the Department of Biology, California Institute of Technology in Pasadena (California). In 1955, when he worked as an assistant professor of biology at Harvard University Cambridge (Massachusetts), fate again brought him to Crick, with whom he conducted joint research until 1956. In 1958, Watson was appointed associate professor, and in 1961 - full professor.
In 1965, Watson wrote the book "Molecular Gene Biology", which became one of the most famous and popular textbooks on molecular biology.
Since 1968, Watson is director of the molecular biology lab at Cold Spring Harbor (Long Island). After retiring from Harvard in 1976, he devoted himself to directing research at Cold Spring Harbor. A significant place in his work was taken by neurobiology and the study of the role of viruses and DNA in the development of cancer.
In 1968, Watson married Elizabeth Levy, previously a lab assistant. They had two sons; the family lives in a 19th-century home on campus.
As for Crick, in 1953 he received his Ph.D. in Cambridge, defending a dissertation on X-ray diffraction analysis of protein structure. Over the next year, he studied protein structure at the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute in New York and lectured at various US universities. Returning to Cambridge in 1954, he continued his research at the Cavendish Laboratory, focusing on decoding the genetic code. Being originally a theorist, Crick began, together with Sidney Brenner, to study genetic mutations in bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacterial cells).
By 1961, three types of RNA were discovered: informational, ribosomal, and transport. Crick and colleagues suggested a way to read the genetic code. According to Crick's theory, informational RNA receives genetic information from DNA in the cell nucleus and transfers it to the ribosomes (protein synthesis sites) in the cell cytoplasm. Transport RNA transfers amino acids to ribosomes. Information and ribosomal RNA, interacting with each other, provide the connection of amino acids for the formation of protein molecules in the correct sequence. The genetic code consists of triplets of nitrogenous bases of DNA and RNA for each of the 20 amino acids. Genes consist of numerous basic triplets, which Crick called codons; codons are the same for different species.
In 1962, Crick became the head of the biological laboratory at Cambridge University and a foreign member of the Board of the Salkovsky Institute in San Diego (California). In 1977, he moved to San Diego, receiving an invitation to become a professor. At the Solkovsky Institute, Crick conducted research in the field of neurobiology, in particular, studied the mechanisms of vision and dreams.
In 1983, together with the English mathematician Graham Mitchison, he suggested that dreams are a side effect of the process by which the human brain is freed from the excessive or useless associations accumulated during wakefulness. Scientists have hypothesized that this form of “reverse learning” exists to prevent overloading of nervous processes.
In the book “Life as It Is: Its Origin and Nature,” Crick noted the amazing similarity of all life forms. “With the exception of mitochondria,” he wrote, “the genetic code is identical in all living objects studied at present.” Referring to discoveries in molecular biology, paleontology and cosmology, he suggested that life on Earth could have come from microorganisms that were scattered throughout space from another planet; he and his colleague Leslie Orgel called this theory "immediate panspermia."
From the book of 100 Great Nobel Laureates the author Mussky Sergey AnatolyevichFRANCIS SCREAM (1916-2004)
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (KR) of the author TSBJAMES WATSON (1928) Francis Harry Compton Creek was born on June 8, 1916 in Northampton. He was the eldest of the two sons of Harry Compton Creek, a wealthy shoe manufacturer, and Anna Elizabeth (Wilkins) Creek. As a child, he attended high school classical. During
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (KU) of the author TSBCrick Francis Harry Compton Crick Crick Francis Harry Compton (b. 8.6.1916, Northampton), English physicist, specialist in the field of molecular biology, member of the Royal Society of London (1959), honorary member of the US Academy of Sciences and Arts (1962). Since 1937, at the end of the university
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (UO) of the author TSB From the book Formula for Success. Leader's Handbook to Top the author Kondrashov Anatoly Pavlovich From the book of 100 great adventures the author Nepomnyashchy Nikolay Nikolaevich From the book The Complete Encyclopedia of Our Misconceptions the author From the book The Complete Illustrated Encyclopedia of Our Misconceptions [with illustrations] the author Mazurkevich Sergey AlexandrovichWATSON Thomas John Watson (1874–1956) is an American entrepreneur, president of the IBM Corporation, one of the richest people of his time. * * * All the problems of this world could be easily solved if only people wanted to think. The problem is that people very often
From the book The Complete Illustrated Encyclopedia of Our Misconceptions [with transparent pictures] the author Mazurkevich Sergey AlexandrovichStrzelecki Creek will not dry It would be unthinkable to travel along all the wandering routes of the famous Polish traveler Pavel Strzelecki (Strzelecki). He went around, traveled, swam without exaggeration - half the world. However, his Australian journey was the most
From the book of Avdotino the author Leonidovna Antonova Natalya From the book Great Dictionary of Quotations and Winged Expressions the authorScream Sometimes babies cry just to relieve tension. In this case, parents are offered to give the baby an opportunity to shout for an hour or two. It’s hard for me to agree with such advice. It seems that they are given by people whose children are never strong
From the book World History in sayings and quotes the author Dushenko Konstantin VasilievichScream Sometimes babies cry just to relieve tension. In this case, parents are offered to give the baby an opportunity to shout for an hour or two. It’s hard for me to agree with such advice. It seems that they are given by people whose children are never strong
From the author’s bookCROWN OF A RAVEN For several days in a row a raven flew up to the roof of his house and with his sinister croaking did not give rest to either the owner or his family. M.I. Pilyaev. Old Moscow At the end of April 1792 in Avdotin life flowed sadly, mundane and quiet. Many days have passed
From the author’s bookWATSON, James Eli (Watson, James Eli, 1864? -1948), US Senator 65 If you can not beat - join. // If you can’t beat ‘em, join‘ em. As one of Watson's favorite sayings, see Frank R. Kent's “Senator James E. Watson” (The Atlantic Monthly, Feb. 1932); here - in the form of “If
From the author’s bookWATSON, James Eli (Watson, James Eli, 1864? - 1948), American senator 16a If you can not beat - join. // If you can’t beat ‘em, join‘ em. Attributed. As one of Watson's favorite sayings, see Frank R. Kent's “Senator James E. Watson” (The Atlantic Monthly, Feb. 1932); here -
From the author’s bookWATSON, Thomas Jones (Sr.) (Watson, Thomas Johnes, 1874–1956), founder and director of IBM 17 I think five computers can be sold on the world market, as Watson Sr. said in 1943, according to "The Book of Facts and Fallacies: A Book of Definitive Mistakes and Misquided Predictions" (1981). Explained
