MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE. Leading scientific discipline in the training of Russian philologists; the objective of the course is a scientific description of the Russian literary language at the present stage of its development. The content of the course is: 1) the sound structure of the word ... ...

modern Russian language- 1) language from A. Pushkin to the present day (a broad understanding of the meaning of the word modern); 2) the language of the middle - the second half of the twentieth century (a narrow understanding of the meaning of the modern terminology proposed by M.V. Panov) ...

RUSSIAN LANGUAGE- The language of the Russian nation, the state language of the Russian Federation, the language of interethnic communication of peoples living in Russia*, the CIS and other countries that were part of the Soviet Union*; ranks fifth in the world in terms of the absolute number of those who own it, ... ... Linguistic Dictionary

The Russian language in Poland is one of the three main foreign languages ​​of the Republic of Poland, along with English and German. The modern Russian language spread to the territory of Central and Eastern Poland at the end of the 18th century, after the division of the Speech ... ... Wikipedia

RUSSIAN LANGUAGE MODERN- RUSSIAN LANGUAGE MODERN. See modern Russian language ... A new dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of teaching languages)

This term has other meanings, see Russian language (meanings). Russian language Pronunciation: ˈruskʲɪj jɪˈzɨk ... Wikipedia

The language of the Russian people, a means of interethnic communication between the peoples of Russia. It belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. The origins of the Russian language go back to ancient times. Approximately in 21 m thousand BC. from a group of related dialects ... ... Russian history

RUSSIAN LANGUAGE- RUSSIAN LANGUAGE. 1. The language of the Russian nation (more than 140 million speakers, over 250 million speakers of Russian), a means of interethnic communication between the peoples of Russia, is one of the most common languages ​​in the world. One of the six official and ... ... A new dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of teaching languages)

I The Russian language is the language of the Russian nation, a means of interethnic communication between the peoples of the USSR, and is one of the most widespread languages ​​in the world. One of the official and working languages ​​of the UN. The number of speakers in R. i. in the USSR over 183 million people ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

modern Russian literary language- Compulsory, fixed in use, as they say, exemplary, the language of writing, science, culture, fiction, education. According to A.A. Shakhmatova, the Russian literary language developed on the basis of a living folk ... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal

I don't know who is the smartest in our country. The skinniest. The most arrogant. Let Guinness and other lovers of pathology figure it out. But I know for sure who is the most literate. I know for sure the name of a person who, even in delirium, will write the quintessence through “and” and will not miss a comma before the conjunction “to”. In a matter of seconds, he will analyze the composition of a word of 29 letters and explain its etymology.

He knows what parcellation and lexico-phraseological analysis are.

He is 94 years old, but the pencil in his hand does not flinch when, reading the morning papers, he once again notes errors in the margins - one, another, a third.

Ditmar Elyashevich Rosenthal. The combination of letters alone inspires awe. His works are admiration and amazement.

I remember that back in the tenth grade, the teacher recommended that we prepare for the examination dictation according to Rosenthal's manual. Then there was a prestigious university, seminars on the modern Russian language, and again: Rosenthal, Rosenthal, Rosenthal ... You ask the teacher a logical question: "Why is it written this way and not like that?" and you get a logical answer: "According to the Rosenthal rule." Did they write before you how God puts on the soul, without any rules?

Of course not. Rules have always existed, since the time of Lomonosov. I got the most rough work: find sources, select, add, systematize, pick up examples.

- Do you think the Russian language is difficult?

The most difficult.

But what about Hungarian and Finnish, in which there are only 14 or 22 cases alone (it doesn’t matter how many, it’s still a lot)?

They are more structured and therefore easier to learn. In addition, Russian words are much more difficult to pronounce than, say, Finnish.

- What is the most difficult thing?

- Female, that is ... no ... male ... that is ...

Women's. We say "veil", not "veil". But you are absolutely correct. Both in life and in language, the masculine is stronger than the feminine. It is from him that feminine forms are formed, and not vice versa: at first there was a strict teacher, and only then his wife appeared, a beautiful teacher. A Russian person feels this himself, he does not know what place, but how to explain the clan system to foreigners? Only with the middle there are no problems: once memorized and free. The middle gender is an established category.

- You mentioned the system of stresses. For several years now I have been tormented by the question of how to start or start?

To START is illiterate, no matter who says it that way.

- Wednesdays or Wednesdays?

Say what you want, but it's better - on Wednesdays.

- How do you know it's better?

Pushkin tells me.

So, Alexander Sergeevich is still more alive than all the living. But it’s interesting, does it happen that you have disputes with modern professors of literature, or is Rosenthal’s authority indisputable?

Yes you. Still how it happens. We fight all the time. As textbook compilers come to the section "Punctuation", this is how it begins ... The system of the Russian language is very flexible: you can put a comma, you can not put it, there are cases when the punctuation mark is put at the choice of the writer. But after all, we are scientists to the marrow of our bones, we want to drive everything into the system so that a writing person, for example, a journalist, is not tormented by doubts about what to choose: a colon? dash? comma? Sometimes disputes go so far that respectable honored people shout at each other like deputies in the Duma, and then, all red, run to calm down in the corridor.

Have you ever argued to the point of hoarseness?

Certainly. Professor Shansky and I still do not agree on the sound "th". I write everywhere that he is an ordinary voiced, and Nikolai Maksimovich - that he is sonorous.

- Is that very important?

For me, this is fundamental.

Ditmar Elyashevich is generally a man of principle. At the journalism faculty of Moscow State University, where he headed the department of stylistics of the Russian language for twenty-five years, everyone was aware of his remarkable principles. Even gouging students were not afraid to take the exam, because they knew well: if Professor Rosenthal is in the selection committee, then less than four points will not shine for them.
In life, Ditmar Elyashevich is small and frail. If you put all his works (something about 400 articles and books) in one pile, then their creator will not be visible behind them - the works have outgrown the master. But today the master is head and shoulders above those who studied according to his textbooks, received well-deserved fives, and then he started teaching himself.

Ditmar Elyashevich, help the eternal dream of a loser come true. After all, you can compose an ultra-complex dictation so that even teachers make a lot of mistakes in it?

- (Laughs). Now I'll tell you the recipe - do it yourself at your leisure. As a basis, you need to take the author's text by Leo Tolstoy and cram as many cases of writing "not" with adjectives and participles as possible. For some reason, we have recently decided that they obey the same rules, and mold in the media such that the hair on the head stands on end.

- So, the modern press is illiterate?

I would put it this way: newspapers do not bring the light of literacy to the world. There are many stylistic and punctuation errors, but, what is most striking, there is also spelling. I don’t understand how you can write “little”, but they do. True, one always wants to hope that such egregious cases are a marriage of the production process, ordinary typos.

And here is a more serious example. Remember all this hype around Yeltsin's alleged illness? Our journalists write: "... we hope that he will recover." And I hope too. Only not that he will "recover" - this is illiterate, but that he will "recover".

- It turns out that the democratic press loses to the newspapers of previous years?

Don't worry. Under Stalin and Brezhnev, newspapermen also did not shine. The only thing that saved them then was the strict standardization and ideologization of the language. True, even under conditions of censorship, they managed to indulge me with examples of how not to write: "Wonderful is the scene of the meeting of loaded cars from one collective farm, in which girls ride, with young Cossacks from another collective farm." By the way, I took the example from Pravda. What you really should be equal to is the printed editions of the past - the beginning of this century.

How do you feel about words of foreign origin? There is an opinion that we should try to replace them with Russian equivalents: call the broth clear soup, etc.

I am for the purity of the Russian language, but this does not mean getting rid of the borrowed words we are used to. Listen to what I'm going to say now: I am a student of the philological faculty of St. Petersburg University. Of the whole phrase, only one Russian word is "I". All the rest are borrowed, but nevertheless we perfectly understand the meaning. And now mentally try to replace all words of foreign origin with Russian equivalents. You yourself will get confused, and the number of words in the sentence will approximately triple.

- Are there many borrowings in Russian?

A lot, about 30%. Get ready, in 5-6 years there will be twice as many of them: "dealers", "distributors" are firmly in use.

- But what about the immortal "Russian language - rich and powerful"?

Yes, it is not so rich compared to other languages. In its complete dictionary, for example, there are only 200 thousand words, while in German, including, however, dialects - all 600 thousand.

200 thousand is still a lot.

So we don't use them all. Now there is a clear trend towards a decrease in the vocabulary of the Russian-speaking population. In the academic four-volume Ushakov's dictionary - the most popular today - there are already only 88 thousand words, but we have a lot of that. In the best case, we actually use 50-55 thousand.

- Well, at least the Russian language gave other languages ​​something?

Bolshevik, for example.

Ditmar Elyashevich lives in a degraded apartment. It seems to be a large room, a wide corridor, high ceilings, but somehow everything is stupidly arranged. Or maybe the house is uncomfortable because the old man lives alone? The son has his own family; granddaughter - married in Sweden. The most literate person in the country spends all his days in an armchair (his legs almost gave out, and he moves with difficulty, pushing a chair in front of him). On the left is a TV, on the right are newspapers, on the table are dictionaries, and behind the glass of a bookcase are familiar names: Pushkin, Blok, Yesenin. Work continues. Professor Rosenthal has already taught Russian to several generations. And teach more. Every evening, looking out the window, he sees his future students, launching boats in a multi-colored gasoline puddle.

- Ditmar Elyashevich, were you born in Moscow?

Believe it or not, I first came to Russia when I was 16 years old. Russian is not my native language.

I was born in Poland. I went to an ordinary Polish gymnasium in Warsaw. Poland then (the beginning of the century - Auth.) was part of the Russian Empire, and therefore at school we studied Russian without fail. I can’t say that in childhood I was very fond of foreign languages, especially since my father always spoke German with us at home.

- Was he German?

No, but he adored Germany and worked there as an economist for many years. When he had children, he gave us German names. So I became Dietmar and my brother became Oskar.

- How did you end up in Moscow?

They fled to relatives when Poland turned into a military training ground. It was during World War I.

- And went to a Russian school?

- Were there any difficulties at first? Still, a foreign language, although related to Polish.

I have always been pathologically literate.

- And your relatives: is literacy in your blood?

Well, my mother didn't have to write much. She was a housewife, although she spoke three languages ​​fluently: with my father - in German, with me and Oskar - in Polish, and on the street - in Russian. But my brother (he was an economist) made mistakes, and I corrected them when I read his works.

- What did you do after graduation?

I entered the Moscow University, the Faculty of History and Philology: over time, I became very interested in foreign languages.

- How many languages ​​do you know?

About 12. When I graduated from the university, I knew six. Don't make such a surprised face - I was a perfectly average student. Some graduates were fluent in Arabic, Thai and Hindi. My set was standard: Latin, Greek, of course, English with French. Well, I learned Swedish.

- Do you still remember?

Swedish? Of course not. I do not use it. In reality, I now remember three languages ​​that divided spheres of influence in my head: I speak Russian, I count in Polish, and I mentally express my emotions in Italian.

- In Italian?

Everyone knows me as a professor of the Russian language and often forget that I wrote the very first high school Italian textbook. The classics of Italian literature also came out in my translations.

- Could you write 400 books on grammar and spelling of the Polish language?

Could. But I had to thank Russia. Enlightenment is the best gratitude.

- You have lived all (almost all) your life in Moscow. Do we Muscovites have our own special pronunciation?

Compared to St. Petersburg, Moscow pronunciation has always been considered reduced: Moscow - merchant, St. Petersburg - noble. True, now Muscovites are more and more aiming at the “nobles”. It is no longer acceptable to say the old Moscow "brown". It should be pronounced "brown". But "buloshnaya" and "of course" through "sh" remain a legitimate Moscow privilege.

- Do people in Moscow speak the same way?

Traditionally, the inhabitants of the Arbat spoke more correctly. Representatives of the Russian intelligentsia lived here from time immemorial, and therefore there was no need to hear profanity here, and no one confused “put on” with “put on”. Not like now.

It seems that, having written a mountain of books on how to speak and write correctly, Professor Rosenthal must forget normal human words and start all his phrases with "would you be so kind ..." However, Ditmar Elyashevich's colleagues revealed a secret to me. It turns out that the famous professor did not disdain rude words. One day, while conducting a meeting of the department, he noticed that the teachers stealthily eat apples, and reacted "in our way": "Not only do they not listen, they also eat!" Respected Rosenthal and student jargon.
"How are you?" his colleagues asked.
"Normal", - answered the professor.

Let's return to your service at Moscow University. Rumor has it that there was a time when the appointment to the post of head of the department was signed by the KGB ...

Personally, the KGB did not offer me to cooperate. Probably, my origin, nationality aroused suspicion. But I knew for sure that in our team, under the guise of a cute stylistics teacher, there is a representative of the authorities who knocks upstairs about every step - mine and my colleagues.

This is probably why I always had the feeling that you take examples for your rules from the final materials of party congresses.

I had to use ideological examples. Approximately 30% of the vocabulary had to be of a certain orientation, and the censor strictly followed this. There was also a list of writers, headed by Gorky and Sholokhov, whose works I was obliged to quote. And, of course, it was impossible to do without Marx and Engels. I imagine how many heads would fly if I took it into my head to use examples from Solzhenitsyn or Mandelstam!

Let's summarize: you have 3 higher educations, you have written 400 textbooks and articles, edited dictionaries, taught at Moscow State University, headed the Department of Russian Language Stylistics at the Faculty of Journalism...

I taught not only at Moscow State University, but also on TV. Valya Leontyeva, Volodya Kirillov - these are all my students. Before the broadcast, we gathered in the studio, did pronunciation exercises, wrote tests. And after the broadcast, I sorted out their mistakes with them.

- And who was the best student?

I don't want to offend anyone. Everyone was talented, but Volodya - especially. It is no coincidence that it was he who later defended himself and became a professor of the Russian language.

In general, tell all my students, especially your fellow journalists, that I remember them all, read them and scold myself for mistakes.

Modern Russian language. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A.

M.: 2002

This textbook is written in accordance with the program on the modern Russian language for faculties of philological profile and, unlike well-known manuals, contains all sections of the course taught in higher educational institutions.

The authors present the theoretical material in a concise and compact form, adhering, as a rule, to traditional linguistic terms. This will make it easier to read the book and assimilate the material. This way of presenting the material retains a connection with the school practice of learning the Russian language and is necessary for independent work with the book.

Nevertheless, the authors draw attention to the existence in Russian linguistics of different points of view on some issues of the theory of the Russian language, highlight the problems that cause controversy in the scientific world. This will help the reader to understand the difficult issues of Russian grammar and acquire the skills to study ambiguous, debatable problems. All this is important not only for mastering the system of the Russian literary language, but also for the development of the reader's linguistic thinking.

Theoretical information on the Russian language is reinforced by exercises, the sequence of which is determined by the methodological principle of transition from simple to complex. As an illustrative material, excerpts from the works of Russian classical and modern literature, as well as journalism and periodicals, arousing the interest of the modern reader, are used. In the chapters, which are of a general nature, questions are given for self-examination. The book makes it possible to learn Russian without a tutor.

Format: chm/zip (2 chm help file)

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The course of the modern Russian language includes a number of sections:
Vocabulary and phraseology study the vocabulary and phraseological (stable phrases) composition of the Russian language.
Phonetics describes the sound composition of the modern Russian literary language and the main sound processes occurring in the language.
Graphic arts introduces the composition of the Russian alphabet, the relationship between sounds and letters.
Spelling defines the rules for the use of alphabetic characters in the written transmission of speech.
Orthoepy studies the norms of modern Russian literary pronunciation.
word formation explores the morphological composition of words and the main types of their formation.
Morphology- the doctrine of the basic lexical and grammatical categories of words (parts of speech).
Syntax- the doctrine of phrases and sentences.
Punctuation- a set of rules for punctuation marks.

UDC 811.161.1

BBK 81.2Rus-92.3

Valgina N.S.

Rosenthal D.E.

Fomina M.I.

Modern Russian: Textbook / Edited by N.S. Valgina. - 6th ed., revised. and additional

Moscow: Logos, 2002. 528 p. 5000 copies

Reviewers: Doctor of Philology, Professor N.D. Burvikov,

Doctor of Philology Professor V.A. Pronin

Contains all sections of the modern Russian language course: vocabulary and phraseology, phonetics, phonology and orthoepy. graphics and spelling, word formation, morphology, syntax and punctuation. In preparing this edition, achievements in the field of the Russian language over the past 15 years have been taken into account. Unlike the fifth edition (M.: Vysshaya shkola, 1987), the textbook includes materials covering active processes in the modern Russian language, and the list of word-formation methods has been replenished. trends in the use of forms of grammatical number, gender and case are noted, changes in syntax are taken into account.

For students of higher educational institutions studying in philological and other humanitarian areas and specialties.

ISBN ISBN 5-94010-008-2

© Valgina N.S., Rozental D.E., Fomina M.I., 1987

© Valgina N.S. Reworked and supplemented, 2001

© Logos, 2002

Valgina N.S.

Rosenthal D.E.

Fomina M.I.

Modern Russian

From the publisher

This textbook is intended primarily for students of philological specialties of higher educational institutions. But it is also designed for use in the educational process in a wide range of humanitarian specialties - of course, primarily those where the possession of the expressive means of literary speech is a prerequisite for successful professional activity. It seems that in any case the textbook will be useful to future lawyers, teachers, art historians, and journalists.

The peculiarity of the publication - conciseness and compactness of the presentation of the material - takes into account the diversity of the needs of a possible audience. Therefore, the duration of the lecture course, practical and self-study using this textbook may vary depending on the direction, the specialty of training humanities, as well as the form of education: daytime, evening or correspondence.

The textbook contains all sections of the modern Russian language course; vocabulary and phraseology, phonetics, phonology and orthoepy, graphics and spelling, word formation, morphology, syntax and punctuation.

In preparing this edition, achievements in the field of the Russian language over the past fifteen years have been taken into account. The wording of certain theoretical positions has been changed, new concepts have been introduced, terminology has been clarified, illustrative materials and bibliography have been partly updated, active processes in the modern Russian language, especially in the field of vocabulary and syntax, have been highlighted.

The content of sections and paragraphs has been supplemented with new information, in particular: the provision on the slightly changed status of the literary language is substantiated; the list of word formation methods has been expanded; tendencies in the use of grammatical number forms are noted; data are given on sentences of real and irreal modality, coordination of forms of the subject and predicate, genitive sentences, as well as on the ambiguity of resolving the issue of homogeneity and heterogeneity of predicates, etc.

Thus, the name of the textbook - "Modern Russian Language" - reflects the essential features of the educational material presented in it. Moreover, the textbook to some extent reveals those trends that, as can be foreseen today, will determine the development of the Russian language in the 21st century.

This sixth edition was prepared by N.S. Valgina based on the stable textbook of the same name, which went through five editions.

Introduction

The modern Russian language is the national language of the great Russian people, a form of Russian national culture.

The Russian language belongs to the group of Slavic languages, which are divided into three subgroups: Eastern - Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian; southern - Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian; western - languages ​​​​Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian, Lusatian. Going back to the same source - the common Slavic language, all Slavic languages ​​\u200b\u200bare close to each other, as evidenced by the similarity of a number of words, as well as phenomena of the phonetic system and grammatical structure. For example: Russian tribe, Bulgarian tribe, Serbian tribe, Polish plemiê, Czech pl e mě, Russian clay, Bulgarian clay, Czech hlina, Polish glina; Russian summer, Bulgarian lato, Czech l e to, Polish lato; Russian red, Serbian kr A San, Czech kr a sn y; Russian milk, Bulgarian milk, Serbian milk, Polish mieko, Czech ml e ko etc.

Russian National language represents a historically established linguistic community and unites the entire set of linguistic means of the Russian people, including all Russian dialects and dialects, as well as social jargons.

The highest form of the national Russian language is Russian literary language.

At different historical stages of the development of the national language - from the language of the people to the national one - in connection with the change and expansion of the social functions of the literary language, the content of the concept of "literary language" changed.

Modern Russian literary language is a standardized language that serves the cultural needs of the Russian people; it is the language of state acts, science, the press, radio, theater, and fiction.

“The division of the language into literary and folk,” wrote A.M. Bitter, means only that we have, so to speak, a “raw” language and processed by masters.

The standardization of the literary language lies in the fact that the composition of the dictionary is regulated in it, the meaning and use of words, pronunciation, spelling and the formation of grammatical forms of words obey the generally accepted pattern. The concept of the norm, however, does not exclude in some cases options that reflect the changes that are constantly taking place in the language as a means of human communication. For example, accent options are considered literary: far - far, high - high, otherwise - otherwise; grams, forms: waving - waving, meowing - meowing, rinsing - rinsing.

The modern literary language, not without the influence of the media, noticeably changes its status: the norm becomes less rigid, allowing variation. It focuses not on inviolability and universality, but rather on communicative expediency. Therefore, the norm today is often not so much a ban on something as a choice. The boundary between normativity and non-normativity is sometimes blurred, and some colloquial and vernacular linguistic facts become variants of the norm. Becoming a common property, the literary language easily absorbs previously forbidden means of linguistic expression. It is enough to give an example of the active use of the word "lawlessness", which previously belonged to the criminal jargon.

Literary language has two forms: oral And written, which are characterized by features both from the side of the lexical composition and from the side of the grammatical structure, because they are designed for different types of perception - auditory and visual.

The written literary language differs from the oral language primarily in the greater complexity of syntax and the presence of a large amount of abstract vocabulary, as well as terminological vocabulary, in particular international. Written literary language has stylistic varieties: scientific, official business, journalistic, artistic styles.

Literary language, as a normalized, processed common language, is opposed to local dialects And jargon. Russian dialects are combined into two main groups: the North Russian dialect and the South Russian dialect. Each of the groups has its own distinctive features in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammatical forms. In addition, there are Central Russian dialects, which reflect the features of both dialects.

Modern Russian literary language is the language of interethnic communication of the peoples of the Russian Federation. The Russian literary language introduces all the peoples of Russia to the culture of the great Russian people.

Since 1945, the UN Charter has recognized the Russian language as one of the official languages ​​of the world.

There are numerous statements of great Russian writers and public figures, as well as many progressive foreign writers about the strength, wealth and artistic expressiveness of the Russian language. Derzhavin and Karamzin, Pushkin and Gogol, Belinsky and Chernyshevsky, Turgenev and Tolstoy spoke enthusiastically about the Russian language.

The course of the modern Russian language consists of the following sections: vocabulary and phraseology, phonetics and phonology, orthoepy, graphics and spelling, word formation, grammar (morphology and syntax), punctuation.

Vocabulary And phraseology study the vocabulary and phraseological composition of the Russian language and the patterns of its development.

Phonetics describes the sound composition of the modern Russian literary language and the main sound processes occurring in the language, the subject of phonology is phonemes - the shortest sound units that serve to distinguish the sound shells of words and their forms.

Orthoepy studies the norms of modern Russian literary pronunciation.

Graphic arts introduces the composition of the Russian alphabet, the relationship between letters and sounds, and spelling- with the basic principle of Russian spelling - morphological, as well as phonetic and traditional spellings. Spelling is a set of rules that determine the spelling of words.

word formation studies the morphological composition of the word and the main types of formation of new words: morphological, morphological-syntactic, lexical-semantic, lexical-syntactic.

Morphology is the doctrine of grammatical categories and grammatical forms of the word. She studies the lexico-grammatical categories of words, the interaction of lexical and grammatical meanings of a word, and ways of expressing grammatical meanings in Russian.

Syntax is the doctrine of sentences and phrases. Syntax studies the basic syntactic units - a phrase and a sentence, types of syntactic connection, types of sentences and their structure.

Based on the syntax, punctuation is built - a set of rules for punctuation.

VOCABULARY AND PHRASEOLOGY

Vocabulary of the Russian language

The concept of vocabulary and lexical system

Vocabulary the whole set of words of the language, its vocabulary is called. The section of linguistics that studies vocabulary is called lexicology(gr. lexikos - dictionary + logos - teaching). There is a difference between historical lexicology, which studies the formation of vocabulary in its development, and descriptive lexicology, which deals with questions of the meaning of a word, semantics (gr. semantikos - denoting), volume, structure of vocabulary, etc., i.e. considering various types of word relationships in a single lexico-semantic system. Words in it can be related by similarity or opposite meanings (cf., for example, synonyms and antonyms), commonality of functions performed (cf., for example, groups of colloquial and book words), similarity of origin or proximity of stylistic properties, as well as belonging to the same part of speech and etc. This kind of relationship of words in different groups, united by a common feature, is called paradigmatic(gr. par a deigma - example, sample) and are the main ones in determining the properties of the system.

A kind of system connections is the degree of lexical compatibility of words with each other, otherwise the relationship syntagmatic(Greek syntagma - something connected), which often influence the development of new paradigms. For example, for a long time the word state was associated in meaning only with the word state as "a political organization of society headed by the government or its bodies." Being a relative adjective in meaning, it was combined with a certain circle of words like: system, border, institution, employee and under. Then its syntagmatic relations expanded: it began to be used in combination with the words thinking, mind, person, action, deed etc., while acquiring the qualitative-evaluative meaning "capable of thinking and acting broadly, wisely." This, in turn, created the conditions for the emergence of new paradigmatic connections, which also influenced the development of new grammatical meanings and forms: since the word in certain cases performs the functions of qualitative adjectives, it became possible to form abstract nouns from it - statehood, quality adverbs - state, antonyms - non-state, anti-state etc.

Consequently, both types of systemic relations are closely related to each other and form a complex lexico-semantic system as a whole, which is part of the general language system.

Semasiological characteristics of the modern lexical system

The lexical meaning of the word. Its main types

The word differs in its sound design, morphological structure and the meaning and meaning contained in it.

Lexical meaning of the word is its content, i.e. the correlation between the sound complex and the object or phenomenon of reality, historically fixed in the minds of speakers, "formulated according to the grammatical laws of a given language and being an element of the general semantic system of the dictionary."

The meaning of words does not reflect the entire set of known features, objects and phenomena, but only those that help to distinguish one object from another. So, if we say: this is a bird, then in this case we are only interested in the fact that we have before us a kind of flying vertebrates, whose body is covered with feathers, and the forelimbs are transformed into wings. These features make it possible to distinguish a bird from other animals, such as mammals.

In the process of joint labor activity, in their social practice, people learn objects, qualities, phenomena; and certain signs of these objects, qualities or phenomena of reality serve as the basis for the meaning of the word. Therefore, for a correct understanding of the meaning of words, a broad acquaintance with the social sphere in which the word existed or exists is necessary. Consequently, extralinguistic factors play an important role in the development of the meaning of a word.

Depending on which feature is the basis of the classification, four main types of lexical meanings of words can be distinguished in the modern Russian language.

By connection, correlation with the subject of reality, i.e. according to the method of naming, or nomination (lat. nominatio - naming, name), direct, or basic, and figurative, or indirect meanings are distinguished.

Direct meaning is one that is directly related to an object or phenomenon, quality, action, etc. For example, the first two meanings of the word hand will be direct: "one of the two upper limbs of a person from the shoulder to the end of the fingers ..." and "... as an instrument of activity, labor."

portable is such a meaning that does not arise as a result of direct correlation with the object, but through the transfer of direct meaning to another object due to various associations. For example, the following meanings of the word hand will be portable:

1) (only singular) manner of writing, handwriting; 2) (plural only) labor force;

3) (only pl.) about a person, a person (... with a definition) as the owner, owner of something; 4) a symbol of power; 5) (only singular, colloquial) about an influential person who is able to protect, provide support; 6) (only singular) about the consent of someone to marriage, about the readiness to marry.

The connections of words with a direct meaning depend less on the context and are conditioned by subject-logical relations, which are quite wide and relatively free. The figurative meaning depends much more on the context; it has a living or partially extinct imagery.

According to the degree of semantic motivation, the meanings are divided into unmotivated(or non-derivative, idiomatic) and motivated(or derivatives of the first). For example, the meaning of the word hand- unmotivated, and the meanings of words manual, sleeve and others - are already motivated by semantic and derivational connections with the word hand.

According to the degree of lexical compatibility, the meanings are divided into relatively free(these include all the direct meanings of words) and not free. Among the latter, there are two main types:

1) phraseologically related meaning is called such that occurs in words in certain lexically indivisible combinations. They are characterized by a narrowly limited, stably reproducible range of words, the links between which are determined not by subject-logical relations, but by the internal laws of the lexico-semantic system. The boundaries of the use of words with this meaning are narrow. Yes, the word bosom the figurative meaning "sincere, sincere" is realized, as a rule, only in combination with the word friend (friendship);

2) syntactically determined meaning is called such that appears at the word when it performs an unusual role in a sentence. In the development of these meanings, the role of context is great. For example, when using the word oak as characterizing person: Oh, you, oak, did not understand anything- its meaning "dumb, insensitive" (colloquial) is realized.

A variety of syntactically conditioned meanings includes the so-called structurally limited, which occurs only when the word is used in a certain syntactic construction. For example, the relatively recent meaning of "district, region, scene" in the word geography due to its use in a construction with a noun in the genitive case: geography of sports victories.

According to the nature of the performed nominative functions, the meanings are actually nominative and expressive-synonymous.

Nominative are called those that directly, immediately name an object, phenomenon, quality, action, etc. In their semantics, as a rule, there are no additional signs (in particular, evaluative ones). Although over time, such signs may appear. (In this case, various kinds of figurative meanings develop, but this group is distinguished according to a different classification feature. See type 1.)

For example, the words writer, assistant, make noise and many others. others

Expressive-synonymous the meaning of the word is called, in the semantics of which the emotional-expressive feature predominates. Words with such meanings exist independently, are reflected in the dictionary and are perceived as evaluative synonyms for words that have a proper nominative meaning. Wed: writer - scribbler, hack writer; assistant - accomplice; make noise - make noise. Consequently, they not only name the object, action, but also give a special assessment. For example, roam(simple) not just “make noise”, but “behave noisily, fussily, dissolutely, dishonorably”.

In addition to these main types of lexical meanings, many words in the Russian language have shades of meanings, which, being closely related to the main one, still have differences. For example, along with the first direct meaning of the word hand in dictionaries, its shade is also given, i.e. a semicolon indicates "part of the same limb from the metacarpus to the end of the fingers." (Compare in the dictionary the shades of meanings of the word book and many other words.)

The word as a lexical and grammatical unit of the language

The word as the basic unit of language is studied in various sections of linguistics.

Yes, in terms of phonetic the sound shell is considered, those vowels and consonants that make up the word are distinguished, the syllable on which the stress falls is determined, etc.

Lexicology(descriptive) first of all finds out everything related to the meaning of the word: clarifies the types of meanings, determines the scope of the word, stylistic coloring, etc. For (historical) lexicology, the question of the origin of the word, its semantics, sphere of use, stylistic affiliation, etc. is important. during different periods of language development.

From point of view grammatical the belonging of a word to one or another part of speech, the grammatical meanings and grammatical forms inherent in the word (see § 106 for more details), and the role of words in a sentence are revealed. All this complements the lexical meaning of the word.

Grammatical and lexical meanings are closely related, so a change in lexical meaning often leads to a change in the grammatical characteristics of a word. For example, in the phrase voiceless consonant word deaf(in the meaning of "sound formed only with the participation of one noise, without the participation of voice") - this is a relative adjective. And in the phrase hollow voice word deaf(meaning "muffled, obscure") - this is a qualitative adjective, having degrees of comparison, a short form. Consequently, the change in meaning also affected the morphological characteristics of the word.

Lexical meanings influence not only the ways of forming individual grammatical forms, but also the formation of new words. So, as a result of the historical development of the meanings of one word fur There are two different words that mean different concepts: squirrel fur And blacksmith's fur(see § 5 about this).

The lexical meaning in a word can be unique (such words are called unambiguous), but it can also coexist with other lexical meanings of the same word (such words are called polysemantic).

Polysemy of a word

ambiguity, or polysemy(gr. poly - many + sma - sign), the property of words is called to be used in different meanings. So, the word core in modern Russian has several meanings:

1) the inner part of the fetus in a hard shell: And the nuts are not simple, all the shells are golden,nuclei- pure emerald(P.); 2) the basis of something (bookish): On the Volga it was destroyedcorefascist army; 3) the central part of something (spec.): core atom; 4) an old gun shell in the form of a round cast body: are rollingnuclei, bullets whistle, cold bayonets hung(P.). The semantic connection of the selected meanings is close, therefore all of them are considered as meanings of the same word.

Word pipe, for example, in phrases water pipe or Spyglass has the meaning "a long, hollow, usually round object." Trumpet a wind brass musical instrument with a strong sonorous timbre is also called: My creator! deafened, louder than anypipes! (Gr.). This word is also used in such a special sense as “a channel in the body for communication between organs”, for example, Eustachianpipe.

Thus, in the process of its historical development, in addition to its original meaning, a word can acquire a new, derived meaning.

The ways of forming the meanings of words are different. A new meaning of a word can arise, for example, by transferring the name according to the similarity of objects or their features, i.e. metaphorically (from Gr. metaphora - transfer). For example; according to the similarity of external signs: nose(person) - nose(ship), object shapes: apple(Antonov) - apple(eye), according to the similarity of sensations, assessments: warm(current) - warm(participation), etc. It is also possible to transfer names according to the similarity of the functions performed (i.e. functional transfers): feather(goose) - feather(steel), conductor(official accompanying the train) - conductor(in engineering - a device that guides a tool).

A new meaning may arise as a result of the appearance of associations by adjacency (the so-called metonymic transfers, Greek metonymia - renaming). For example, the name of a material is transferred to a product made of this material: chandelier frombronze(name of material) - An antique shop was selling an antiquebronze(product from this material). In a metonymic way, various kinds of connotations also arise (gr. synekdochē), i.e. name in one word for an action and its result, cf.: embroider- exhibition of artistic embroidery; part and whole (and vice versa), cf.: Flashedjacketscapless and grayovercoats(i.e. sailors and foot soldiers; in this case, a person is named after a piece of clothing), etc.

The different meanings of a word, as well as their shades, make up its so-called semantic structure and serve as a vivid example of the manifestation of systemic connections within a single word. It is this type of relationship that allows writers and speakers to widely use polysemy, both without a special stylistic predestination, and with a specific goal: to give speech expressiveness, emotionality, etc.

In the event of a break or complete loss of semantic links between different meanings, it becomes possible to name completely different concepts, objects, etc. with an already known word. This is one of the ways to develop new words - homonyms.

Lexical homonyms, their types and role in the language

Homonyms(gr. homos - the same + onima - name) words are called that are different in meaning, but the same in sound and spelling. In lexicology, two types of lexical homonyms are studied: complete and incomplete, or partial.

Modern Russian - Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. - 2002.

This textbook is written in accordance with the program on the modern Russian language for faculties of philological profile and, unlike well-known manuals, contains all sections of the course taught in higher educational institutions.
The authors present the theoretical material in a concise and compact form, adhering, as a rule, to traditional linguistic terms. This will make it easier to read the book and assimilate the material. This way of presenting the material retains a connection with the school practice of learning the Russian language and is necessary for independent work with the book.

My first 1000 English words - memorization technique - Litvinov P.P. - 2007.

The purpose of the manual is the formation and improvement of skills for quickly memorizing English words. The form of presentation of the material, based on the original author's methodology, will help not only to significantly expand the vocabulary in a short period of time, but also improve the literacy of speech in English.
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Security Encyclopedia - 3 - Chapter 4 - Gromov V.I., Vasiliev G.A.

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English language tests - Koshmanova I.I. - 2004.

The collection contains tests of four levels of difficulty, designed to check spelling, grammar, vocabulary and word usage. The tests given in the collection are similar to those offered for entrance exams in educational institutions. Tests are varied in structure and are provided with keys.

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Test tasks for preparing for the exam in English - Duda N.V.

The textbook is intended for graduate students in preparation for the test form of the final exam in English as part of the Unified State Examination (USE). The manual is specifically focused on adapting to test control technologies, taking into account their new format and content.

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Repeating tenses of the English verb - 5-11 grades - Klementieva T.B. - 1996.

If you want to systematize your knowledge in the field of the use of aspect-temporal forms of the English verb, the book of the famous psychologist and teacher T.B. Klementieva, the author of the most popular textbooks for secondary schools. The manual allows you to independently master the material and check the results of your work. The book is addressed to students of middle and high school, students of non-linguistic specialties of universities, all students of English.

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Scientific and business correspondence - English - Bass E.M.

Scientific and business correspondence - English language - Bass E.M. - 1991.

The book, consisting of 10 thematic sections, contains samples of letters relating to various situations that arise in the conduct of scientific and business correspondence; they use words, phrases and expressions that are typical for correspondence in English.
In order to consolidate vocabulary and grammar, the book includes material for translating both from English into Russian and from Russian into English, as well as a Russian-English dictionary.
For everyone who conducts scientific and business correspondence in English.