Scientists such as Vygotsky The Revisionist Movement in Vygotskovedenie
1896-1934) - famous in the world psychology of owls. psychologist. V. became most famous for the cultural-historical concept of the development of higher mental functions that he created, the theoretical and empirical potential of which has not yet been exhausted (which can be said about almost all other aspects of V.'s work). In the early period of his creative work (until 1925), V. worked out the problems of the psychology of art, believing that the objective structure of a work of art causes at least 2 opposing emotions in the subject, a contradiction between which is resolved in the catharsis that underlies aesthetic reactions. A little later V. develops problems of the methodology and theory of psychology ("The historical meaning of the psychological crisis"), outlines a program for constructing a concrete scientific methodology of psychology based on the philosophy of Marxism (see Causal-dynamic analysis). For 10 years, V. was engaged in defectology, creating in M. a laboratory of psychology of abnormal childhood (1925-1926), which later became an integral part of the Experimental Defective Institute (EDI), and developed a qualitatively new theory of the development of an abnormal child. In the last stage of his work, he took up the problems of the correlation of thinking and speech, the development of meanings in ontogenesis, the problems of egocentric speech, etc. ("Thinking and Speech", 1934). In addition, he developed problems of the systemic and semantic structure of consciousness and self-consciousness, unity of affect and intellect, various problems of child psychology (see Zone of Proximal Development, Learning and Development), problems of the development of the psyche in phylogeny and sociogenesis, the problem of brain localization of higher mental functions, and many other
He had a significant impact on domestic and world psychology and others related to the psychology of science (pedology, pedagogy, defectology, linguistics, art history, philosophy, semiotics, neuroscience, cognitive science, cultural anthropology, a systematic approach, etc.). The first and closest students of V. were A.R. Luria and A.N. Leontyev ("troika"), subsequently L. I. Bozhovich, A. V. Zaporozhets, R. E. Levina, N. G. Morozova, L. S. Slavina ("five"), who created their original psychological concepts. V.'s ideas are developed by his followers in many countries of the world. (E. E. Sokolova.)
Adding ed .: The main works of V .: Sobr. Op. in 6 vols (1982-1984); "Educational Psychology" (1926); "Studies in the history of behavior" (1930; co-authored with Luria); The Psychology of Art (1965). The best biographical book about V.: G. L. Vygodskaya, T. M. Lifanova. "Leo Semenovich Vygotsky" (1996). See also Instrumentalism, Intellectualization, Internalization, Cultural-Historical Psychology, Double Stimulation Method, Functionalism, Experimental Genetic Method for the Study of Mental Development.
VYGOTSKY Lev Semenovich
Lev Semenovich (1896-1934) - a Russian psychologist who made a great scientific contribution to the field of general and educational psychology, philosophy and theory of psychology, developmental psychology, psychology of art, defectology. The author of the cultural-historical theory of behavior and development of the human psyche. Professor (1928). After graduating from the Law Faculty of the First State Moscow University and at the same time the historical and philological faculty of the National University A.L. Shaniavsky (1913-1917), taught from 1918 to 1924 at several institutes of Gomel (Belarus). He played an important role in the literary and cultural life of this city. Even in the pre-revolutionary period, V. wrote a treatise on Hamlet, where existential motifs about the eternal grief of being are heard. He organized a psychological laboratory at the Gomel Pedagogical School and began work on a manuscript of a psychology textbook for secondary school teachers (Pedagogical Psychology. Short Course, 1926). He was an uncompromising supporter of natural science psychology, focused on the teaching of I.M. Sechenova and I.P. Pavlov, who he considered the foundation for building a new system of ideas about the determination of human behavior, including the perception of works of art. In 1924, V. moved to Moscow, became an employee of the Institute of Psychology of Moscow State University, whose director was appointed K.I. Kornilov and before whom the task of restructuring psychology was based on the philosophy of Marxism. In 1925, V. published the article Consciousness as a Problem of Behavioral Psychology (Sat. Psychology and Marxism, L.-M., 1925) and wrote the book Psychology of Art, in which he summarized his works 1915-1922. (published in 1965 and 1968). To the topic of art, he later returned only in 1932 in a single article devoted to the work of the actor (and already from the standpoint of a socio-historical understanding of the human psyche). From 1928 to 1932 V. worked at the Academy of Communist Education. N.K. Krupskaya, where he created a psychological laboratory in fact, whose dean was A.R. Luria. During this period, V.'s interests were concentrated around pedology, to which he tried to give the status of a separate discipline and conducted research in this direction (Pedology of a teenager, 1929-1931). Together with B.E. Warsaw published the first Russian Psychological Dictionary (M., 1931). However, political pressure on Soviet psychology was growing. The works of V. and other psychologists were subjected to sharp criticism from the ideological point of view in the press and at conferences, which greatly complicated the further development of research and its introduction into the practice of pedagogy. In 1930, the Ukrainian Psychoneurological Academy was founded in Kharkov, where A.N. Leontiev and A.R. Luria. V. often visited them, but did not leave Moscow, because during this period, he had relations with the Leningrad State University. In the last 2-3 years of his life, he took up the formulation of the theory of child development, creating the theory of the zone of proximal development. Over the ten years of his journey in psychological science, V. has created a new scientific direction, the basis of which is the doctrine of the socio-historical nature of human consciousness. At the beginning of his scientific career, he believed that the new psychology is called upon to integrate with reflexology into a single science. Later, V. condemns reflexology for dualism, because, ignoring consciousness, she carried it beyond the limits of the bodily mechanism of behavior. In the article Consciousness as a Problem of Behavior (1925), he outlined a plan for the study of mental functions, based on their role as indispensable regulators of behavior, which a person includes speech components. Based on the position of K. Marx on the difference between instinct and consciousness, V. proves that thanks to work there is a doubling of experience and a person acquires the ability to build twice: first in thoughts, then in practice. Understanding the word as an action (first the speech complex, then the speech reaction) V. sees in the word a special sociocultural mediator between the individual and the world. He attaches particular importance to his symbolic nature, due to which the structure of a person’s spiritual life and his mental functions (perception, memory, attention, thinking) from the elementary ones become higher. Treating the signs of the language as mental tools, which, unlike the tools of labor, do not change the physical world, but the consciousness of the subject operating them, V. proposed an experimental program to study how the system of higher mental functions develops thanks to these structures. This program was successfully implemented by him together with a team of employees who formed school B. The child’s cultural development was at the center of his interests. Along with normal children, V. paid much attention to the abnormal (suffering from visual, hearing, mental retardation), becoming the founder of a special science - defectology, in the development of which he defended humanistic ideals. The first version of his theoretical generalizations concerning the laws of the development of the psyche in ontogenesis, V. outlined in the development of higher mental functions, written by him in 1931. In this work, a diagram of the formation of the human psyche in the process of using signs as a means of regulating mental activity was presented - first in the external interaction of the individual with other people, and then the transition of this process from the outside to the inside, as a result of which the subject gains the ability to control his own behavior (this process was called internalization). In subsequent works, V. focuses on the study of the meaning of the sign, that is, on the content (mainly intellectual) associated with it. Thanks to this new approach, he, together with his students, developed an experimentally grounded theory of the child’s mental development, embodied in his main work Thinking and Speech (1934). He closely connected these studies with the problem of learning and its impact on mental development, covering a wide range of problems of great practical importance. Among the ideas put forward by him in this regard, the provision on the zone of proximal development, according to which only that training is effective, which runs ahead of development, as if pulling it along, revealing the child's ability to solve those tasks with which he independently can not cope. V. attached great importance in the development of the child to the crises that the child experiences during the transition from one age level to another. Mental development was interpreted by V. as inseparably coupled with motivational (affective in its terminology), therefore, in his studies, he affirmed the principle of the unity of affect and intelligence, however, early death prevented him from implementing a program of studies analyzing this development principle. Only preparatory work in the form of a large manuscript Doctrine of Emotions has been preserved. Historical and psychological research, the main content of which is an analysis of the Passion of the soul of R. Descartes - a work that, according to V., determines the ideological appearance of modern psychology of feelings with its dualism of lower and higher emotions. V. believed that the prospect of overcoming dualism lies in the ethics of V. Spinoza, however, V. did not show how to rebuild psychology based on the philosophy of Spinoza. V.'s works were distinguished by a high methodological culture. The presentation of specific experimental and theoretical problems was invariably accompanied by philosophical reflection. This was most pronounced in the works on thinking, speech, emotions, and in the analysis of the development of psychology and the causes of its crisis at the beginning of the 20th century. V. believed that the crisis has a historical meaning. His manuscript, which was first published only in 1982, although the work was written in 1927, was called the historical meaning of the psychological crisis. This sense, as V. believed, consisted in the fact that the breakdown of psychology into separate areas, each of which implies its own understanding of the subject and methods of psychology, incompatible with others, is logical. Overcoming this tendency to the disintegration of science into many separate sciences requires the creation of a special discipline of general psychology as a doctrine of the basic general concepts and explanatory principles that allow this science to maintain its unity. To this end, the philosophical principles of psychology should be rebuilt and this science should be spared from spiritualistic influences, from the version according to which the main method in it should be an intuitive understanding of spiritual values, and not an objective analysis of the nature of a person and her experiences. In this regard, V. outlines (also unrealized, like many of his other ideas) a project for the development of psychology in terms of drama. He writes that personality dynamics are drama. Drama is expressed in external behavior in the case when there is a clash of people playing various roles on the stage of life. In the internal plan, drama is associated, for example, with the conflict between reason and feeling, when the mind and heart are not at odds. Although early death did not allow V. to realize many promising programs, his ideas, which revealed the mechanisms and laws of the cultural development of the personality, the development of its mental functions (attention, speech, thinking, affects), outlined a fundamentally new approach to the fundamental issues of the formation of this personality. This significantly enriched the practice of teaching and raising normal and abnormal children. V.'s ideas gained wide resonance in all the sciences that study man, including linguistics, psychiatry, ethnography, sociology, etc. They determined a whole stage in the development of humanitarian knowledge in Russia and still retain their heuristic potential. Transactionses. In published in the Collected Works in 6 volumes - M, Pedagogy, 1982 - 1984, and also in the books: Structural Psychology, M., Moscow State University, 1972; Problems of defectology, M., Education, 1995; Lectures on pedology, 1933-1934, Izhevsk, 1996; Psychology, M., 2000. L.A. Karpenko, M.G. Yaroshevsky
Everyone knows Freud, Yurga - the majority, Carnegie and Maslow - many. Vygotsky Lev Semenovich - a name rather for professionals. The rest, except that they have heard the surname, and at best, can associate it with defectology. And that’s all. But it was one of the brightest stars of Russian psychology. It was Vygotsky who created a unique direction that had nothing to do with the interpretation of the formation of the human personality of any of the gurus of science. In the 1930s, everyone in the world of psychology and psychiatry knew this name - Lev Semenovich Vygotsky. The labors of this man made a splash.
Scientist, psychologist, teacher, philosopher
Time does not stand still. New discoveries are being made, science is moving forward, restoring something, re-discovering something lost. And if you arrange a street survey, it is unlikely that many respondents will be able to answer who Lev Semenovich Vygotsky is. Photos - old, black and white, blurry - will show us a young handsome man with a thoroughbred elongated face. However, Vygotsky did not become old. It is possible that fortunately. His life flashed a bright comet on the dome of Russian science, flickered and went out. The name was forgotten, the theory was declared erroneous and harmful. And meanwhile, even if we discard the originality and subtlety of Vygotsky’s general theory, the fact that his contribution to defectology, especially for children, is invaluable, is beyond doubt. He created the theory of working with children suffering from damage to the organs of perception and mental disorders.
Childhood
November 5, 1986. It was on this day that Vygotsky Lev Semenovich was born in Orsha, Mogilev Province. The biography of this man did not contain vivid and amazing events. Wealthy Jews: father is a merchant and banker, mother is a teacher. The family moved to Gomel, and there a private teacher, Solomon Markovich Ashpiz, was engaged in teaching the children there, the figure in those parts is quite remarkable. He practiced not traditional teaching methods, but Socratic dialogues, which were almost never used in educational institutions. Perhaps it was this experience that determined Vygotsky’s unusual approach to teaching practice. A cousin, David Isaakovich Vygodsky, a translator and well-known literary critic, also influenced the formation of the worldview of the future scientist.
Student years
Vygotsky knew several languages: Hebrew, Ancient Greek, Latin, English and Esperanto. He studied at Moscow University, first at the medical faculty, then transferred to law. For a while he comprehended science in parallel at two faculties - legal and historical-philosophical, at the University. Shaniavsky. Later, Vygotsky Leo Semenovich decided that he was not interested in jurisprudence, and completely focused on his passion for history and philosophy. In 1916, he wrote a two hundred-page work devoted to the analysis of Shakespeare's drama - Hamlet. He later used this work as a thesis. This work was highly appreciated by specialists, since Vygotsky applied a new, unexpected method of analysis, which allows you to look at a literary work from a different angle. Lev Semenovich at that time was only 19 years old.
When he was a student, Vygotsky did a lot of literary analysis, published works on the works of Lermontov and Bely.
First steps in science
After the revolution, having graduated from high school, Vygotsky first left for Samara, then with his family he looked for work in Kiev and, in the end, returned again to his native Gomel, where he lives until 1924. Not a psychotherapist, not a psychologist, but a teacher - this is precisely the profession that Lev Semenovich Vygotsky chose. A brief biography of those years can fit in several lines. He worked as a teacher in schools, technical schools, courses. He headed the theater education department first, and then the art department, wrote and published (critical articles, reviews). For some time Vygotsky even worked as an editor of a local publication.
In 1923, he was the leader of a group of students at the Moscow Pedagogical Institute. The experimental work of this group provided material for study and analysis, which Lev Semenovich Vygotsky could use in his works. His activity as a serious scientist began precisely in those years. At the All-Russian Congress of Psychoneurologists in Petrograd, Vygotsky made a report based on data obtained as a result of these experimental studies. The work of the young scientist made a splash; for the first time, words were spoken about the emergence of a new direction in psychology.
Carier start
It was with this speech that the career of a young scientist began. Vygotsky was invited to the Moscow Institute of Experimental Psychology. Outstanding scientists-psychologists of that time — Leontyev and Luria — already worked there. Vygotsky not only organically fit into this scientific team, but also became an ideological leader, as well as an initiator of research.
Soon, almost every practicing psychotherapist and defectologist knew who Lev Semenovich Vygotsky was. The main works of this outstanding scientist will be written later, at that time he was a brilliant practitioner for everyone, personally involved in pedagogical and therapeutic activities. Parents of sick children made incredible efforts to get an appointment with Vygotsky. And if it was possible to become an “experimental model” in the laboratory of abnormal childhood, it was considered an incredible success.
How did the teacher become a psychologist?
What is so unusual about the theory that Leo Semenovich Vygotsky proposed to the world? After all, psychology was not his core subject; rather, he was a linguist, literary critic, culturologist, and practicing teacher. Why exactly psychology? Where from?
The answer is in the theory itself. Vygotsky was the first who tried to move away from reflexology, he was interested in the conscious formation of personality. Figuratively speaking, if a person is a house, before Vygotsky, psychologists and psychiatrists were interested exclusively in the foundation. Of course, this is necessary. Without this, he won’t be at home. The foundation largely determines the building - shape, height, some design features. It can be improved, improved, strengthened and isolated. But this does not change the fact. The foundation is just the foundation. But what will be built on it is the result of the interaction of many factors.
Culture defines the psyche
If we continue the analogy, it was precisely these factors that determined the final appearance of the house that Leo Semenovich Vygotsky was interested in. The main works of the researcher: “Psychology of Art”, “Thinking and Speech”, “Psychology of Child Development”, “Pedagogical Psychology”. The scientist’s circle of interests clearly formed his approach to psychological research. A person who is passionate about art and linguistics, a gifted teacher, who loves and understands children, is Vygotsky Lev Nikolaevich. He clearly saw that it is impossible to separate the psyche and the products it produces. Art and language are products of the activity of human consciousness. But they also determine the emerging consciousness. Children grow up not in a vacuum, but in the context of a certain culture, in a linguistic environment that has a great influence on the psyche.
Teacher and psychologist
Vygotsky understood the children well. He was a wonderful teacher and a sensitive loving father. His daughters said that they had a warm trusting relationship not only with their mother, a strict and restrained woman, but with their father. And they noted that the main feature of Vygotsky’s attitude towards children was a feeling of deep sincere respect. The family lived in a small apartment, and Leo Semenovich did not have a separate place for work. But he never yanked children, did not forbid them to play or invite friends to visit. After all, this was a violation of family equality. If guests come to their parents, children have the same right to invite friends. To ask not to make noise for some time, as an equal equal - this is the maximum that Vygotsky Lev Semenovich allowed himself to do. Quotes from the memoirs of the scientist’s daughter, Gita Lvovna, will allow you to look “behind the scenes” of the life of an outstanding Russian psychologist.
Vygotsky's daughter about his father
The scientist’s daughter says that there wasn’t so much time dedicated to her. But her father took her with him to work, to college, and there the girl could freely examine any exhibits and preparations, and her father’s colleagues always explained to her what, why and why. So, for example, she saw a unique exhibit - the brain of Lenin, stored in a bank.
Father did not read her children's poems - he simply did not like them, he considered this a tasteless primitive. But Vygotsky had an excellent memory, and he could recite many classic works by heart. As a result, the girl developed perfectly in art and literature, not at all feeling her age mismatch.
Surrounding about Vygotsky
The daughter also notes that Vygotsky Lev Semenovich was extremely attentive to people. When he listened to the interlocutor, he focused on the conversation completely. During the dialogue with the student, it was impossible to immediately understand who the student was and who was the teacher. This moment is also noted by other people who knew the scientist: janitors, attendants, cleaners. All of them said that Vygotsky beat an exceptionally sincere and friendly person. Moreover, this quality was not demonstrative, developed. No, it was just a character trait. It was very easy to confuse Vygotsky, he was extremely critical of himself, while he treated people with tolerance and understanding.
Work with children
Perhaps it was sincere kindness, the ability to deeply feel other people and treat indulgence in their shortcomings that led Vygotsky to defectology. He always maintained that limited abilities in one thing were not a sentence for a child. A flexible children's psyche is actively seeking opportunities for successful socialization. Silence, deafness, blindness are just physical limitations. And children's consciousness instinctively tries to overcome them. The main duty of doctors and teachers is to help the child, push him and support him, as well as provide alternative opportunities for communication and information.
Vygotsky paid particular attention to the problems of mentally retarded and deaf-blind children as the most problematic socialized children, and achieved great success in organizing their education.
Psychology and Culture
Vygotsky was keenly interested in the psychology of art. He believed that this particular industry is capable of exerting a critical influence on a person, releasing affective emotions that in ordinary life cannot be realized. The scientist considered art the most important tool for socialization. Personal experiences form a personal experience, but emotions caused by the influence of a work of art form an external, social, social experience.
Vygotsky was also convinced that thinking and speech are interconnected. If developed thinking allows you to speak a rich, complex language, then there is an inverse relationship. The development of speech will lead to a qualitative leap in intelligence.
He introduced the third element, culture, into the familiar chain of consciousness-behavior for psychologists.
The death of a scientist
Alas, Lev Semenovich was not a very healthy person. Back in 19 years, he contracted tuberculosis. For many years the disease was dozing. Vygotsky, although he was not healthy, nevertheless coped with the disease. But the disease progressed slowly. Perhaps the situation was aggravated by the persecution of the scientist that unfolded in the 30s. Later his family joked sadly that Lev Semenovich died on time. This saved him from arrest, interrogation and imprisonment, and his relatives from repression.
In May 1934, the condition of the scientist became so difficult that he was prescribed bed rest, and a month later the body's resources were completely exhausted. On June 11, 1934, the outstanding scientist and talented teacher Lev Semenovich Vygotsky died. 1896-1934 - only 38 years of life. Over the years, he managed an incredible amount. His work was appreciated not immediately. But now many practices of working with abnormal children are based precisely on the techniques developed by Vygotsky.
The outstanding scientist Vygotsky Lev Semenovich, whose main works are included in the golden fund of world psychology, managed a lot in his short life. He laid the foundation for many subsequent areas in pedagogy and psychology, some of his ideas are still waiting for their development. The psychologist Lev Vygotsky belonged to a galaxy of prominent Russian scientists who combined erudition, brilliant rhetorical abilities and deep scientific knowledge.
Family and childhood
Leo Vygotsky, whose biography began in a prosperous Jewish family in the city of Orsha, was born on November 17, 1896. His surname at birth was Vygodsky, he changed the letter in 1923. The father's name was Simkh, but in the Russian manner they called Semyon. Leo's parents were educated and wealthy people. Mom worked as a teacher, father was a merchant. In the family, Leo was the second of eight children.
In 1897, the Vygodskys moved to Gomel, where his father became the deputy bank manager. Leo’s childhood was quite prosperous, mother devoted all her time to children. The children of the brother Vygodsky Sr. also grew up in the house, in particular brother David, who had a strong influence on Leo. The Vygodskikh House was a kind of cultural center, where the local intelligentsia gathered, discussed cultural news and events in the world. My father was the founder of the first public library in the city, since childhood, children have become accustomed to reading good books. Subsequently, several prominent philologists left the family, and in order to differ from his cousin, the representative of Russian formalism, Leo will change the letter in the surname.
Study
For children, a private teacher Solomon Markovich Ashpiz, known for his unusual pedagogical method based on Socrates' Dialogues, was invited to the Vygodsky family. In addition, he adhered to progressive political views and was a member of the Social Democratic Party.
Leo was formed under the influence of a teacher, as well as brother David. From childhood, he was fond of literature and philosophy. His favorite philosopher was Benedict Spinoza, and the scientist carried this passion through his whole life. Lev Vygotsky studied at home, but later successfully passed the external exam for the fifth grade of the gymnasium and went to the 6th grade of the Jewish male gymnasium, where he received his secondary education. Leo studied well, but continued to receive private lessons in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and English at home.
In 1913, he successfully passed the entrance examinations at Moscow University to the medical faculty. But pretty soon it translates into legal. In 1916 he wrote many reviews of books by contemporary writers, articles on culture and history, and reflections on the "Jewish" question. In 1917, he decided to leave jurisprudence and transferred to the historical and philological faculty of the University. Shaniavsky, who ends in a year.
Pedagogy
After graduating from university, Lev Vygotsky was faced with the problem of employment. He, with his mother and younger brother, first goes to Samara in search of a place, then goes to Kiev, but in 1918 he returns to Gomel. Here he joins the construction of a new school, in which he begins to teach with his older brother David. From 1919 to 1923 he worked in several educational institutions of Gomel, and also headed the department of public education. This pedagogical experience became the basis for his first scientific research in the field of methods for influencing the younger generation.
He organically enters into a pedological direction progressive for that time, which combined psychology and pedagogy. Vygotsky creates an experimental laboratory at the Gomel College, in which his pedagogical psychology is formed. Vygotsky Lev Semenovich actively speaks at conferences and becomes a prominent scientist in the new field. Already after the death of the scientist, works devoted to the problems of the formation of skills and children's education will be combined in a book called “Pedagogical Psychology”. It will contain articles about attention, aesthetic education, forms of studying the personality of the child and the psychology of the teacher.
First steps in science
While still at university, Lev Vygotsky is fond of literary criticism, publishes several works on poetics. His work on the analysis of "Hamlet" by W. Shakespeare was a new word in literary analysis. However, Vygotsky began to engage in systematic scientific activity in a different field - at the intersection of pedagogy and psychology. His experimental laboratory conducted works that became a new word in pedology. Even then, Leo Semenovich was occupied with mental processes and questions of the influence of psychology on the activities of teachers. His works, presented at several scientific conferences, were vivid and peculiar, which allowed Vygotsky to become a psychologist.
Path in psychology
Vygotsky’s first works were related to the problems of teaching abnormal children; these studies not only laid the foundation for the development of defectology, but also made a serious contribution to the study of higher mental functions and mental patterns. In 1923, at the congress on psychoneurology, a fateful meeting with the outstanding psychologist A. R. Luria takes place. He was literally captivated by Vygotsky's report and initiated the move of Lev Semenovich to Moscow. In 1924, Vygotsky received an invitation to work at the Moscow Institute of Psychology. Thus began the brightest, but shortest period of his life.
The interests of the scientist were very diverse. He dealt with the problems of current reflexology at that time, made a significant contribution to the study of higher mental functions, and also did not forget about his first attachment - about pedagogy. After the scientist’s death, a book will appear combining his many years of research, “Psychology of Human Development”. Vygotsky Leo Semenovich was a methodologist of psychology, and in this book his fundamental reflections on the methods of psychology and diagnosis are collected. Particularly important is the part devoted to the psychological crisis; of extreme interest are 6 lectures by the scientist, in which he dwells on the main issues of general psychology. Vygotsky did not have time to deeply reveal his ideas, but became the founder of a number of areas in science.
Cultural History Theory
A special place in the psychological concept of Vygotsky is occupied by the cultural-historical theory of the development of the psyche. In 1928 he made a bold statement for those times that the social environment is the main source of personality development. Vygotsky Lev Semenovich, whose pedagogical works were distinguished by a special approach, rightly believed that the child goes through the stages of the formation of the psyche not only as a result of the implementation of biological programs, but also in the process of mastering “psychological tools”: culture, language, and accounting system. Consciousness develops in cooperation and communication, so the role of culture in the formation of personality cannot be overestimated. According to the psychologist, a person is an absolutely social being, and outside of society many mental functions cannot be formed.
"Psychology of art"
Another important, landmark book, which became famous for Vygotsky Leo, is “Psychology of Art”. It was published many years after the death of the author, but even then made a huge impression on the scientific world. Researchers from different fields experienced its influence: psychology, linguistics, ethnology, art history, sociology. The main idea of \u200b\u200bVygotsky was that art is an important area of \u200b\u200bdevelopment of many mental functions, and its emergence is due to the natural course of human evolution. Art is the most important factor in the survival of the human population; it performs many important functions in society and in the life of individual individuals.
"Thinking and Speech"
Vygotsky Lev Semenovich, whose books are still extremely popular all over the world, did not manage to publish his main work. The book “Thinking and Speech” was a real revolution in the psychology of its time. In it, the scientist was able to express many ideas that were later formulated and developed in cognitive science, psycholinguistics, social psychology. Vygotsky experimentally proved that human thinking is formed and develops exclusively in speech activity. Moreover, language and speech are also means of stimulating mental activity. He discovered the stadial nature of the formation of thinking and introduced the concept of "crisis", which is used everywhere today.
Scientist's contribution to science
Vygotsky Lev Semenovich, whose books are now obligatory for every psychologist to read, for his very short scientific life was able to make a considerable contribution to the development of several sciences. His work became, among other studies, the impetus for the formation of psychoneurology, psycholinguistics, cognitive psychology. His cultural-historical concept of the development of the psyche lies at the basis of an entire scientific school in psychology, which most actively begins to develop in the 21st century.
It is impossible to underestimate Vygotsky’s contribution to the development of Russian defectology, developmental and educational psychology. Many of his works only today receive their true appreciation and development; in the history of Russian psychology, such a name as Lev Vygotsky now occupies an honorable place. The scientist’s books are constantly being reprinted today, his drafts and drafts are published, the analysis of which shows how powerful and original his ideas and designs were.
Vygotsky’s students are the pride of Russian psychology, fruitfully developing his own ideas. In 2002, the book of the scientist “Psychology” was published, in which his fundamental research was combined in the basic sections of science, such as general, social, clinical, age-related psychology, as well as developmental psychology. Today, this textbook is basic for all universities in the country.
Personal life
Like any scientist, Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, for whom psychology became the work of life, devoted most of his time to work. But in Gomel, he had a like-minded bride, and later his wife, Roza Noevna Smekhova. The couple lived a short life together - only 10 years, but it was a happy marriage. The couple had two daughters: Gita and Asya. Both became scientists, Gita Lvovna - psychologist and defectologist, Asya Lvovna - biologist. The psychological dynasty was continued by the granddaughter of the scientist - Elena Evgenievna Kravtsova, who now heads the Institute of Psychology named after her grandfather.
End of the way
Back in the early 1920s, Lev Vygotsky fell ill with tuberculosis. He became the cause of his death in 1934. The scientist continued to work until the end of his days and on the last day of his life said: “I am ready.” The last years of the psychologist’s life were complicated by the gathering clouds around his work. Repression and persecution were approaching, so death allowed him to avoid arrest, and saved his relatives from reprisal.
VYGOTSKY LEV SEMENOVICH
prominent scientist, psychologist, professor, head of the department of difficult childhood, Moscow State Pedagogical Institute
November 17, 2016 marks the 120th anniversary of the birth of Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, an outstanding Russian psychologist, in the last ten years of his life, from 1924 to 1934, who worked at our university. At that time, the Moscow State Pedagogical University was called the Second Moscow State University and then the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute named after A.S. Bubnova.
Vygotsky wrote his first scientific work, the treatise The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark by W. Shakespeare (1916), under the guidance of literary critic and psychologist Yu. I. Aichenwald (who also worked at our University). More than 50 years later, the famous Shakespeare scholar Alexander Abramovich Anikst wrote: “For the last 60 years of my life, I have been doing Shakespeare .... When I first took up Vygotsky’s work on Hamlet, I realized that the 19-year-old youth who wrote it was a genius. ” The theater remained one of the main interests of L. S. Vygotsky until the early 1920s, when psychology became the topic of his research. In 1924, at the II All-Russian Congress on Psychoneurology in Petrograd, he made three reports.
In the early 1920s the role of one of the pillars of Soviet psychology was played by professor Konstantin Nikolaevich Kornilov, who began his career as a teacher in Altai, in 1923, who replaced Georgy Ivanovich Chelpanov as director of the Moscow State Institute of Experimental Psychology, and built “Marxist psychology”. In 1924, at the proposal of A. R. Luria, Kornilov invited Vygotsky to work at the Institute.
The Faculty of Education (the first in the country) was created at the Second Moscow State University in 1921, K. N. Kornilov became its first dean. In 1924, Lev Vygotsky was accepted as an assistant professor at the Second Moscow State University. In 1927, he became a senior fellow of the 1st category of the Research Institute of Pedology at the Second Moscow State University. His scientific views of this period diverged from the views of Kornilov, nevertheless he wrote: “The work of Kornilov laid the foundation for this methodology, and anyone who wants to develop the ideas of psychology and Marxism will have to repeat it and continue its path. As a way, this idea is unparalleled in strength in European methodology. ” In 1928, Vygotsky became a consultant to the correspondence bureau of the Second Moscow State University. From 1931 to 1934, as professor, he headed the department of difficult childhood at the A.S. Moscow State Pedagogical Institute Bubnova.
Leo Vygotsky lived only 37 years (and the last decade of his life suffered from tuberculosis), but thanks to his tremendous capacity for work, he managed to do a lot. At the age of 30, together with his colleagues A.N. Leontyev and A.R. Luria, in many ways laid the foundation for the development of Russian psychology for the next decades, despite the fact that in 1936 Vygotsky's works were banned in the Soviet Union.
L. S. Vygotsky went down in history precisely as a psychologist. The focus of his scientific research was the triad "consciousness - culture - behavior." In his writings, a fundamental cultural-historical theory in psychology was formulated and the question was raised about the relationship of human thinking and speech. “World science is still not keeping pace with genius,” wrote Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich Ivanov, whose work on semiotics was based on the psycholinguistics of Vygotsky.
Recently, the interest of the world psychological and pedagogical community in the genius of Lev Vygotsky has been constantly growing, his name unites scientists from many countries. Across the entire spectrum of cognitive sciences, from educational research to medicine, the surge in interest in his writings is unprecedented today. Of particular importance was his scientific heritage in China - the All-China Society L.S. Vygotsky and the Scientific Center L.S. Vygotsky at Zhejiang University. “We owe it to the Russian school, and especially to works based on Vygotsky’s tradition,” said Basil Bernstein, professor at the University of London.
The almost century-long period of modern world pedagogy and psychology is based on the ideas of Lev Vygotsky and his scientific school, whose representatives also work at Moscow State Pedagogical University.
In our work on the modernization of teacher education, which we are conducting today together with other universities in Russia, we are actually able to be guided by the constructions of L. S. Vygotsky, we talk about his ideas in the very first classes with freshmen and they help them throughout their studies in University, in practice in subsequent work at school. The cognitive research currently being launched at the University also continues and develops to a large extent the tradition of Vygotsky’s world school.
In 2016, for the anniversary of our professor, the Museum of the Moscow State Pedagogical University and the Archive of the Moscow State Pedagogical University present a unique document - the Labor List of Lev Semenovich Vygotsky in the author’s handwritten version, thanks to which for the first time one can thoroughly analyze his scientific and pedagogical activity from 1919 to 1932. All data is supported by links to documents. Some of the information contained here is not indicated in the well-known biographies of the scientist and is published for the first time.
The labor list (work book) of the professor of the Second Moscow State University - MGPI them. A.S. Bubnov (Moscow State Pedagogical University) Leo Semenovich Vygotsky. 1931
Signature of the reporting person “L. Vygotsky ”
Decryption of the labor list (work book) L.S. Vygotsky
The life and scientific work of L.S. Vygotsky described in his article “The genius of psychology. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky »Isaac Yudovin.
Scientific Heritage and Scientific School L.S. Vygotsky considered in the article “L.S. Vygotsky and scientific schools of Moscow University: unity in diversity ”Corr. RAO, professor of Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosova A.N. Waited.
The faculty of pedagogy and psychology of the Moscow State Pedagogical University organized Vygotsky, his ideas, which made a fundamental contribution to understanding the nature of personality development.
In 2012, the Museum of the Moscow State Pedagogical University published in digital form a biographical encyclopedia of outstanding scientists of the Moscow State Pedagogical University for 140 years: 1872-2012, which presents a detailed biography of L.S. Vygotsky.
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky
Vygotsky Lev Semenovich, Soviet psychologist. Having criticized attempts to explain human behavior by reducing higher forms of behavior to lower elements, Vygotsky developed a cultural-historical theory of the development of the psyche ("The Development of Higher Psychic Functions", 1930-31, publ. 1960).
According to Vygotsky, it is necessary to distinguish between two plans of behavior - natural (the result of the biological evolution of the animal world) and cultural (the result of the historical development of society), fused in the development of the psyche. The essence of cultural behavior lies in its mediation by tools and signs, the former directed “outside”, to transform reality, and the latter “inside”, first to transform other people, then to control their own behavior. In the last years of his life, Vygotsky focused on the study of the structure of consciousness (Thinking and Speech, 1934). Exploring speech thinking, Vygotsky in a new way solves the problem of localization of higher mental functions as structural units of brain activity. Studying the development and decay of higher mental functions based on the material of child psychology, defectology and psychiatry, Vygotsky concludes that the structure of consciousness is a dynamic semantic system of affective, volitional and intellectual processes that are in unity.
The cultural-historical theory of Vygotsky gave rise to the largest school in Soviet psychology, from which A. N. Leontyev emerged, A. R. Luria , P. Ya. Halperin, A.V. Zaporozhets , P.I. Zinchenko, D. B. Elkonin and others.
Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. Edition: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983.
Works: Studies in the history of behavior, M.-L., 1930 (jointly with A. R. Luria); Fav. psychological research, M., 1956; Psychology of art, M., 19682; Sobr. op., vol. 1 - 2-, M., 1982.
Vygotsky Lev Semenovich - Russian psychologist. Graduated from the Law Faculty of Moscow University (participated in a seminar G. G. Shpet) and the historical and philosophical department of the University of Shanyavsky (where I attended courses P.P. Blonsky who played an important role in his spiritual development). After studying, he works in Gomel in various educational institutions, organizes a psychological laboratory (1922-23). Early works - The Tragedy of Hamlet, the Prince of Denmark, W. Shakespeare (1915-16), Psychology of Art (1925, publ. 1965) and Pedagogical Psychology (1924, publ. 1926) - became an important stage in the formation of his groundbreaking concept of psychology. After a report at the 2nd All-Russian Congress on Psychoneurology in January 1924, she was invited to work at the State Institute of Experimental Psychology in Moscow. In 1925 he defended his thesis "Psychology of Art", made a presentation at the International Congress on the Education of Deaf Children (London). In the winter of 1925-1926, he wrote a large work, The Historical Meaning of a Psychological Crisis (publ. 1982), in which he analyzed the crisis of modern psychology and attempted to use a number of philosophical principles of Marxism to determine a program for overcoming this crisis. High philosophical and methodological culture - familiarity with the psychological trends of our time, creative productivity determined the rapid and rich in results of the evolution of the scientist's views. In those same years, he developed close cooperation with A. N. Leontyev, A. R. Luria, and other psychologists; one of the leading schools in world psychology — the Vygotsky School — was formed. Major milestones in his creative biography were the works: “A Tool and a Sign in the Development of a Child” (1930, publ. 1982), “The History of the Development of Higher Psychic Functions” (1931, publ. 1960), where the principles of a cultural-historical theory of the development of the psyche were substantiated. and experimental genetic method of its research. Vygotsky sees the essence of cultural behavior in his mediation by tools and signs, and the formation of psychic skills and abilities as the process of internalization. The last years of his life were devoted to the study of the problems of the structure of consciousness, its semantic and systemic structure. The book “Thinking and Speech” (1934) substantiates the approach to the structure of consciousness as a dynamic semantic system, which is a unity of affective, volitional and intellectual processes, and reveals the central role of the word in consciousness as a whole, and not in its individual functions. Premature death did not allow Vygotsky to complete many plans and undertakings.
For decades, the development of Soviet psychology, represented by such names as A.R. Luria, A.N. Leontyev, A.V. Zaporozhets, P. Ya. Halperin, D. B. Elkonin, P. I. Zinchenko, etc. , proceeded under the influence of Vygotsky. Unscrupulous scientific criticism (since the early 1930s) after the defeat of pedology ended in oblivion of his name. After 1956, Vygotsky's ideas gained considerable popularity. In the 1960s and 70s several dozens of editions of his works appeared in other countries of the world. Vygotsky is one of the creators of non-classical psychology, which is (according to Elkonin's definition) a science of how the subjective world of an individual is born and arises from the objective world of art, from the world of material culture and industry.
A. I. Aleshin
New philosophical encyclopedia. In four volumes. / Institute of Philosophy of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Scientific Ed. tip: V.S. Stepin, A.A. Huseynov, G.Yu. Semigin. M., Thought, 2010, t. I, A - D, p. 468.
Vygotsky Lev Semenovich (1896-1934) - Russian psychologist, creator of the cultural-historical concept of the development of higher mental functions.
Biography. In 1917 he graduated from the Law Faculty of Moscow University, at the same time - the Faculty of History and Philosophy of the University of Shanyavsky. Since 1924 he worked at the Moscow State Institute of Experimental Psychology, then - at the Institute of Defectology founded by him. He taught courses at several universities in Moscow, Leningrad, Kharkov. Professor of the Institute of Psychology in Moscow.
Research. Until the second half of the 1920s dealt with the problem of perception of art. He distinguished in the emotional sphere of an individual who perceives this or that work of art two differently directed affects, the opposite of which is removed in catharsis, which is the basis of the aesthetic reaction. In the work “The historical meaning of the psychological crisis” he began to analyze the general problems of the methodology and theory of psychology and the construction of the methodology of Marxist psychology. He developed the foundations of cultural-historical psychology, in which the leading role is played by instrumental actions and activities with a sign. He dealt with the problems of defectology in the laboratory of psychology of abnormal childhood (1925-1926) he created, formulating a new theory of the development of an abnormal child. In the last stage of his work, he studied the relationship between thinking and speech, the development of meanings in ontogenesis, egocentric speech (Thinking and Speech. 1934; Thinking and Speech // Collected Works: 6 vol. M .: Pedagogy, 1982. T. 2) . L. S. Vygotsky believed that inner speech comes from the so-called egocentric speech, which is a child’s conversation with himself out loud during the game and other activities. With the gradual soundlessness and syntactic reduction, this speech becomes more abbreviated, idiomatic and predicative, verb forms become dominant in it. Upon reaching school age, egocentric speech is finally transformed into internal. L. S. Vygotsky came to the conclusion that consciousness is a dynamic semantic system in which affective, volitional and intellectual processes are in unity. Introduced the concept of the zone of proximal development.
Historical context. He had a significant impact both on the domestic (A.N. Leontyev, A.R. Luria, A.V. Zaporozhets, etc.) and on world psychological thought.
Kondakov I.M. Psychology. Illustrated Dictionary. // THEM. Kondakov. - 2nd ed. add. And the reslave. - SPb., 2007, p. 114-115.
Works: Methodology of reflexological and psychological research. 1924; Pedagogical psychology. M., 1926; Imagination and creativity in childhood. M .; L, 1930; Studies on the history of behavior. M .; L., 1930 (shared with A.R. Luria); Thinking and Speech. Sotsekgiz, M.L., 1934; Mental development of children in the learning process. M, 1935; Diagnostics of development and pedological clinic of difficult childhood. Sotsekgiz, M.-L., 1936; Selected psychological works. M., 1956; Problems of emotions // Questions of psychology. 1958. No. 3; The development of higher mental functions. M, 1960; Psychology of art. M., 1968; Sobr. Op .: In 6 vol. M., 1982-1984.
Literature: Petrovsky A.V. History of Soviet psychology. M., 1967; Vygotsky's scientific work and modern psychology / Ed. V.V. Davydova. M., 1981; Pumrey A. A. Cultural-historical theory of L. S. Vygotsky and modern psychology. M: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1986; Veer R, Understanding Vygotsky. Oxford, 1991; Yaroshevsky M. G. L. Vygotsky in search of a new psychology. St. Petersburg, 1993; Yaroshevsky M. G. Behavioral science: Russian pun ,. M .; Voronezh, 1996; Vygotskaya G. L. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky: life, activity, touches to the portrait. M .: Sense, 1996; L. S. Vygotsky // Psychology: Biographical Bibliographic Dictionary / Ed. N. Shihi, E.J. Chepman, W.A. Conroy. St. Petersburg: Eurasia, 1999; Leontyev A. A. Key ideas of L. S. Vygotsky - a contribution to world psychology of the XX century // Psychological journal. 2001. No 4. V. 22
Vygotsky Lev Semenovich (5 (17). 11.1896, Orsha - 06/11/1934, Moscow) - psychologist. In the pre-revolutionary period, he was the author of an approach close to impressionism and existentialism, which appeared in the treatise on Hamlet, where motifs about the famous “grief of being” sound, Since 1917 he was a teacher in Gomel. According to his views, Vygotsky becomes a supporter of natural science psychology, focused on the teachings of Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov as the foundation on which a new system of ideas about the determination of human behavior should be built ( Educational Psychology, 1924, published - 1926), including the perception of works of art (Psychology of Art, 1925, published - 1965). In 1924, Vygotsky moved to Moscow, worked at the Institute of Psychology, which was given the task of restructuring research on the basis of the philosophy of Marxism. In the article "Consciousness as a Problem of Behavioral Psychology" (1925), he outlines a plan for the study of mental functions, based on their role as regulators of behavior, which in humans includes speech components. Based on the position of K. Marx on the difference between instinct and consciousness, Vygotsky points out that thanks to work there is a “doubling of experience” and a person acquires the ability to “build twice: first in thoughts, then in practice” (Pedagogical Psychology. 1926. P. 177) .
Understanding the word as an action (first a speech reflex, then a speech reaction), Vygotsky sees in him a special sociocultural mediator between the individual and the world. He attaches great importance to his symbolic nature, due to which the structure of the person’s spiritual life and his mental functions (perception, memory, attention, thinking) are changing qualitatively. From the elementary, they become higher. Treating the signs of culture as psychic tools, which, unlike tools, do not change the physical world, but the consciousness of the subject operating them, Vygotsky proposed an experimental program to study how the system of higher mental functions develops thanks to these tools. This program was successfully implemented by him together with a team of employees who formed the Vygotsky school, in the center of which interests was the cultural development of the child. Along with normal children, Vygotsky paid great attention to the abnormal (suffering from visual, hearing, mental retardation), becoming the founder of a special science - defectology, in the development of which he defended humanistic ideals. The first work analyzing the laws of the psyche in the individual development of a person was his work “The Development of Higher Mental Functions” (1931, published 1960), which presents a diagram of the formation of the human psyche in the process of using signs as means of regulating mental activity first in the external interaction of the individual with other people , and then in the sphere of controlling his own behavior, the ability to which he will gain through the transfer of the process of interaction from the outside to the inside ( interiorization) In subsequent works, Vygotsky focuses on the meaning of the sign, i.e., on the content (primarily intellectual) associated with it. Thanks to this approach, he, together with his students, developed the theory of mental development of a person, embodied in his main work “Thinking and Speech” (1934). Vygotsky closely associated these studies with the problem of learning and its impact on mental development. In this regard, the provision on the “zone of proximal development” has gained popularity, according to which, only that training is effective, which “runs ahead of development”, as if “pulls” it along, revealing the child’s ability to solve those tasks with the participation of the teacher he cannot cope on his own. Mental development was interpreted by Vygotsky as inextricably linked with motivational (in his terminology, affective), therefore, in his studies, he affirmed the principle of unity of “intellect and affect”. However, early death prevented him from implementing the program. Only the preparatory work in the form of a large manuscript “The Doctrine of Emotions. Historical and psychological research ”(1933), the main content of which is an analysis of R. Descartes's“ Passion of the Soul ”- a work, according to Vygotsky, that defines the face of modern psychology of feelings with its dualism of lower and higher emotions. At the same time, he believed that the prospects for overcoming dualism are inherent in Spinoza's Ethics. Vygotsky's works were distinguished by a high methodological culture. The presentation of specific experimental and theoretical problems was invariably coupled with their philosophical understanding. This was most pronounced in the essay on thinking, speech, emotions, and in the analysis of the development of psychology and the causes of its crisis at the beginning of the 20th century.
In the work “The historical meaning of the psychological crisis” (1927, published 1982), he saw this crisis as a breakdown of psychology into separate areas, each of which offers its own, incompatible with other understanding of the subject and methods of psychology, and considered it necessary to overcome this process. special "general psychology" as a doctrine of basic concepts and explanatory principles. On this path, Vygotsky believed, psychology will be spared from spiritualistic influences, from all kinds of versions, from the inconsistency of the subject’s inner world research with the objective method and causal analysis. Under the influence of the Marxist J. Politzer Vygotsky put forward a project for the development of psychology "in terms of drama." Drama, according to Vygotsky, is expressed in the external behavior of a person (when there is a clash of people playing various roles “on the stage of life”) and in the internal, for example, in a conflict between the mind and feeling. It is dramatization (including the collision of the biological with the social), and not articulate speech itself that serves as a factor characterizing the specificity of human consciousness in contrast to other living beings. His creative searches with the beginning of ideological repressions were "branded" as an "idealistic revision of historical materialism." Even more severe charges were brought against him with the prohibition of pedology, because, as having studied the psychology of the child, he was considered one of its leaders. His works were in special custody and thus were withdrawn from scientific circulation. Only in the 2nd half of the 50s they began to be published, causing interest both in our country and abroad. They received wide resonance in many disciplines, including aesthetics, semiotics, ethnography, cultural history, science of science, etc.
Russian philosophy. Encyclopedia. Ed. the second, finalized and supplemented. Edited by M.A. Olive Comp. P.P. Apryshko, A.P. Poles. - M., 2014, p. 119-120.
Works: Collected Op .: In 6 vol. M., 1982-1984; Thinking and Speech. M., 2011.
Literature: Bubbles L. A. Cultural-historical theory of L. S. Vygotsky and modern psychology. M., 1986; Yaroshevsky M. G. Vygotsky: in search of a new psychology. St. Petersburg, 1993; Vygodskaya G. L., Lifanova T. M. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky: Life. Activity Strokes to the portrait. M., 1996 (bibl.); Mareev S. N. From the history of Soviet philosophy: Lukach Vygotsky - Ilyenkov. M., 2008.
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Philosophers, lovers of wisdom (biographical index).
Russian national philosophy (special project of CHRONOS)
Sochinenich:
Sobr. Op .: In 6 vol. M., 1982-1984.
Thinking and Speech. Sotsekgiz, M.L., 1934;
Thinking and Speech. M., 2011.
Methodology of reflexological and psychological research. 1924;
Pedagogical psychology. M., 1926;
Imagination and creativity in childhood. M .; L, 1930;
Studies on the history of behavior. M .; L., 1930 (shared with A.R. Luria);
Mental development of children in the learning process. M, 1935;
Diagnostics of development and pedological clinic of difficult childhood. Sotsekgiz, M.-L., 1936;
Selected psychological works. M., 1956;
Problems of emotions // Questions of psychology. 1958. No. 3;
The development of higher mental functions. M, 1960;
Psychology of art. M., 1968;
Literature:
Yaroshevsky M. G., Gurgenidze G. S. L. S. Vygotsky on the nature of the psyche. - "VF", 1981, No. 1;
Leontyev A.A. L. S. Vygotsky. M., 1990;
Bubbles L. A. Cultural-historical theory of L. S. Vygotsky and modern psychology. M., 1986;
Yaroshevsky M. G. Vygotsky: in search of a new psychology. St. Petersburg, 1993;
Vygodskaya G. L., Lifanova T. M. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky: Life. Activity Strokes to the portrait. M., 1996 (bibl.);
Mareev S. N. From the history of Soviet philosophy: Lukach Vygotsky - Ilyenkov. M., 2008.
Berg E. E. L. S. Vygotsky "Theory of the Social and Historical Origins of Consciousness, Umpubliched doktoral diss. Wisconsin, 1970, v. 2;
