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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

"Siberian Federal University"

Trade and Economic Institute

Department of Economics and Planning

TEST

On the discipline "Microeconomics"

Option number 3

Krasnoyarsk, 2017

1. Methods of economic research

Basic methods of economic research:

1. observation and collection of facts;

2. experiment;

3. modeling;

4. method of scientific abstractions;

5. analysis and synthesis;

6. systematic approach;

7. induction and deduction;

8. historical and logical;

9. graphic.

Turning to the first method, like any scientific activity, economic research is empirical in nature, that is, based on practical experience. This involves the observation of economic processes in their real form, and the collection of facts that occur in reality. For example, through observation and collection of factual information, it is possible to determine how commodity prices have changed over a given period.

In contrast, an experiment involves an artificial scientific experiment, when the object under study is placed in specially created and controlled conditions. For example, to test the effectiveness of a new wage system, its experimental tests are carried out within a certain group of workers.

The modeling method involves the study of socio-economic phenomena according to their theoretical model (model). Especially effective is mathematical modeling on computers, which makes it possible to calculate the most efficient use of enterprise resources. A very successful version of such modeling is the MEM program, which allows you to calculate your business strategy in conditions of free competition.

The method of scientific abstractions is used to develop certain abstract concepts or categories, such as price, money, cheap, expensive, etc. In this case, it is necessary to abstract from the secondary properties of the object under study, and highlight the properties they need. For example, in order to define such an economic category as a product, it is necessary to ignore the size, weight, color and other characteristics that are not essential in this case, and at the same time fix the property that unites them: all these things are products of labor intended for sale.

The method of analysis and synthesis involves the study of socio-economic phenomena both in parts (analysis) and as a whole (synthesis).

The combination of analysis and synthesis provides a systematic approach to complex research objects.

Induction and deduction are two opposite but closely related modes of reasoning.

The movement of thought from particular (separate) facts to a general conclusion is an induction, or a generalization. And reasoning in the opposite direction (from the general

Historical and logical methods are also applied in unity. They involve a detailed study of socio-economic processes in their historical sequence, but at the same time with logical generalizations that allow us to evaluate these processes as a whole and draw general conclusions.

The graphical method of displaying economic processes and phenomena is widely used in economic sciences. It is based on the use of various drawings, tables, graphs, diagrams, etc. Thanks to these tools, visibility and compactness in the presentation of theoretical material are provided.

For example, the figure shows the relationship between product prices and supply. The higher the prices, the more offering goods.

2. What is the nominal and real interest rate?

Percentage is an absolute value. For example, if 20,000 is borrowed and the debtor must return 21,000, then the percentage is 21000-20000=1000.

The rate (norm) of loan interest - the price for using money - is a certain percentage of the amount of money. It is determined at the equilibrium point of supply and demand for money.

Very often in economic practice, for convenience, when they talk about loan interest, they mean the interest rate.

Distinguish between nominal and real interest rates. When people talk about interest rates, they mean real interest rates. However, real rates cannot be directly observed. When concluding a loan agreement, we receive information about nominal interest rates.

Nominal rate (i) - a quantitative expression of the interest rate, taking into account current prices. The rate at which the loan is issued. The nominal rate is always greater than zero (except for a free loan).

The nominal interest rate is the percentage in monetary terms. For example, if for an annual loan of 10,000 den. units, 1200 den. units are paid. as interest, the nominal interest rate will be 12% per annum. Having received an income of 1200 den. units on a loan, will the lender become richer? This will depend on how prices have changed during the year. If annual inflation was 8%, then the real income of the creditor increased by only 4%.

Real rate(r) = nominal rate - inflation rate.

The real bank interest rate can be zero or even negative.

The real interest rate is the increase in real wealth, expressed as an increase in the purchasing power of an investor or lender, or the exchange rate at which today's goods and services, real goods, are exchanged for future goods and services. The fact that the market rate of interest will be directly affected by inflationary processes was first suggested by I. Fischer, who determined the nominal interest rate and the expected rate of inflation.

The relationship between rates can be represented by the following expression:

i = r + e , (1)

where i is the nominal, or market, interest rate;

r - real interest rate;

e is the rate of inflation.

Only in special cases, when there is no rise in prices in the money market (e=0), do real and nominal interest rates coincide. The equation shows that the nominal interest rate can change due to changes in the real interest rate or due to changes in inflation. Since the borrower and lender do not know what rate inflation will take, they proceed from the expected rate of inflation. The equation takes the form:

i = r + ee, (2)

where is the expected rate of inflation.

This equation is known as the Fisher effect. Its essence is that the nominal interest rate is determined not by the actual rate of inflation, since it is not known, but by the expected rate of inflation. The dynamics of the nominal interest rate repeats the movement of the expected inflation rate. It should be emphasized that when setting the market rate of interest, it is the expected rate of inflation in the future, taking into account the maturity of the debt obligation, and not the actual rate of inflation in the past that matters.

If unforeseen inflation takes place, then borrowers benefit at the expense of lenders, as they repay the loan with depreciated money. In the event of deflation, the lender will benefit at the expense of the borrower.

Sometimes a situation may arise when real interest rates on loans have a negative value. This can happen if the rate of inflation exceeds the growth rate of the nominal rate. Negative interest rates can set up during periods of runaway inflation or hyperinflation, as well as during periods of economic recession when demand for credit falls and nominal interest rates fall. Positive real interest rates mean an increase in the income of creditors. This happens if inflation reduces the real cost of the loan (credit received).

Interest rates can be fixed or floating.

A fixed interest rate is set for the entire period of use of borrowed funds without the unilateral right to review it.

A floating interest rate is a rate for medium and long-term loans, which consists of two parts: a moving basis, which changes in accordance with market conditions, and a fixed value, usually unchanged throughout the entire period of lending or circulation of debt securities.

3. In conditions of imperfect competition, firms receive maximum profit if their production volumes meet the condition:

a) equality of marginal revenue and marginal cost;

b) the excess of the market price over the total cost of production;

c) equality of total income and total costs;

d) the excess of the market price over marginal cost.

research economic competition

Answer: g

4. Task. The marginal utility of oil for the consumer depends on its quantity: MUm = 40 -- 5m. Marginal utility of bread: MUx = 20 -- 3x. The price of 1 kg of butter is $5, the price of bread is $1. Income is $20. How much bread and butter will the consumer buy?

Solution:

Consumer behavior is the process of forming consumer demand for a variety of goods and services, taking into account their income and personal preferences.

The usefulness of a good is its ability to satisfy any needs of a person or society.

Total utility is the total utility of all consumed goods.

Marginal utility - the utility of the last unit of a consumed good

At the heart of consumer choice (consumer behavior in the market) is the utility function. The utility function explains how consumers should allocate their limited money income among the various goods and services they can buy. The utility function is a function that shows the decrease in the marginal utility of a good with an increase in its quantity.

The consumer must choose between alternative products in order to get at his disposal the most satisfactory, from his point of view, set of goods and services with limited financial resources. When he makes a purchase of one good, he compares this option for spending his limited funds with alternative options until he is convinced that it will bring him no less utility than others. If the consumer used only two goods: X and Y, then the marginal utility of a unit of good X would have to be estimated by the number of units of good Y that he is willing to give up in order to acquire a unit of good X.

But since the market assumes a variety of goods, it is necessary to determine how many units of other goods (Y, Z, ..., N) the buyer is ready to give up in order to acquire one unit of good X. This condition is called the utility maximization rule: the consumer will demand the product up to until the marginal utility per unit of money spent on a given good equals the marginal utility per unit of money spent on another good.

Thus, the consumer tries to allocate his budget in such a way as to equalize the weighted average marginal utilities of the purchased goods. At the same time, he reaches a maximum of well-being (or equilibrium).

The consumer's equilibrium equation, in which he maximizes the utility of the consumed goods, can be written as follows:

where MU is the marginal utility of individual goods;

P - prices of goods.

Consumer choice is a choice that maximizes the utility function of a rational consumer under conditions of limited resources (monetary income).

Thus, based on the initial data, we obtain that

MUM/Pm= МUchl/Pchl

I=Pm*Qm+Pchl*Qchl

20=5*Qm + Qchl;

(40-5*Qm) / 5= 20 - 3*Qchl;

(40-5*/Qm) / 5=20 - 3*(20-5Qm)

5*(20-60+15*Qm)= 40-5*Qm

100-300+75*Qm = 40-5*Qm

75*Qm+5*Qm=40 -100 + 300

Answer: The consumer will purchase 5 loaves of bread and 3 kg of butter.

Bibliographic list

1. Vechkanov G. S. Microeconomics: textbook. allowance / G. S. Vechkanov, G. R. Vechkanova. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2007. - 256 p.

2. Ilyashenko V.V. Microeconomics (for bachelors): Textbook.-KnoRus, 2012 .-276 p.

3. Simkina L.G. Microeconomics (for bachelors): Textbook.- KnoRus, 2012.- 356 p.

4. Nikolaeva I.P. Economic theory: Textbook for bachelors. - Dashkov and K, 2013. - 327p.

5. Nureev R.M. Microeconomics course: A textbook for universities. 2nd ed., rev. - M.: Norma, 2008. - 576 p.

6. Yudanov A.Yu. , Gryaznova A.G. Microeconomics. Theory and Russian Practice: Textbook. - KnoRus, 2012. -619 p.

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Methodology of science - the doctrine of the principles of construction and methods of scientific knowledge. Modern methodology offers two main approaches to the analysis of the economic life of society: a) dialectical-materialistic; b) subjective-idealistic.

With the dialectical-materialist approach, socio-economic development is seen as an objective reality that is in constant change. Changes in society occur in accordance with general philosophical laws - the unity and struggle of opposites, the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative ones and vice versa, universal connection and interdependence, negation of negation.

A person can facilitate his existence, expand his economic needs and satisfy them to the fullest extent, if he impartially studies the process of reproduction and the economic relations that arise on this occasion, deduces the laws of economic development, studies their objective requirements and coordinates his economic actions in accordance with these requirements.

In the subjective-idealistic approach, either the objectivity of the real world is denied, or the objective world is regarded as determined by the actions of the subject.

Neither approach denies the principles of change and development (dialectic) in economic research. As for the materialistic and idealistic approaches in the analysis of the economic life of society, their opposition today does not correspond to reality. In the socio-economic life of society, a subject acts with his ideas, goals, needs and interests. At the same time, his subjective activity takes place in the objective world, which everyone has to reckon with.

The systematic approach serves as a form of realization of the dialectical-materialistic methodology. The systems approach and principles of system analysis have been used in science for a long time. However, these principles became widespread on a scientific basis in the second half of the 20th century. in connection with the emergence of a new science - cybernetics and its branch - economic cybernetics.

The latter considers the economy, its structural and functional links as a system, which facilitates the regulation of socio-economic processes and their management. The world around us, both material and ideal, is not made up of separate objects, phenomena and processes isolated from each other, but their interconnected and interacting systemic, integral formations.

Note that the principle of system analysis is not opposed to dialectics, but is not identified with it either. These are two methods of analysis that, complementing each other, help the researcher to obtain better results.

Along with the widespread use of system analysis in all branches of science, there is a different definition of consistency, a systematic approach, its significance and achievements are assessed differently.

The concept of "system" has become frequently used in the economic literature. But why this or that phenomenon acts as a system, what are the basic principles of the system approach and its significance for the practice of managing - questions that remain unanswered. Meanwhile, the concept of "system" and, consequently, the application of a systematic approach cannot be extended to any set of elements. Only the totality of the elements that make up the organic integrity can be spoken of as a system. In other words, a system is a set of elements representing an organic or self-developing structure. This is the integrity of elements that have an internal source of development.

Each element in the system is relatively independent, unique, and performs only its own specific functions. It is the interaction of elements with different functional orientations that constitutes the internal source due to which the system develops itself. The sameness of the elements of the system would not contribute to their contradictory interaction, the formation of organic integrity and its development.

The result of the action of the system is not a simple summand of the action of its elements. It is achieved due to the integrity of the system and the totality of connections between its individual elements.

The main principles of the systems approach can be summarized as follows:

1. understanding of the system as an organic set of interacting elements;
2. understanding the inconsistency of the interaction of the elements of the system (due to the specific purpose of each of them), which constitutes the internal source of its development;
3. consideration of the interaction of the system with other systems and external inconsistency in the development of each system;
4. highlighting the main element in the system, which determines the purpose and direction of its development.

Socio-economic systems are among the most complex and difficult to manage. This is due to the fact that a person acts here, acting as a subject and object of the system. The needs of a person, and consequently, his interests and motives of behavior are extremely diverse. In addition to economic needs and interests, human activity can be determined by national, political, moral, social motives that distort natural trends in economic development. The economic system of each country is influenced by the economic systems of other countries, contributing to or hindering its development.

A significant impact on the economic system of each country has its relationship with another system - nature. The depletion of natural resources of raw materials and land, the pollution of the human environment led to the emergence of new, resource-saving technologies and the birth of a new branch of science - the economics of ecology, which has an impact on national economic systems and the world economic system as a whole.

In the socio-economic aspect, the organic integrity of the highest order in the formational approach is the socio-economic formation, which serves as the subject of study of the social sciences as a whole and consists of three large, complex and relatively independent elements: productive forces, production relations and political superstructure. Forming subsystems of the socio-economic structure, each of its three elements acts as a relatively independent system with its own complex structure.

The approach to the socio-economic system from the standpoint of pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial society (as well as based on different levels of civilization) does not exclude the need for an element-by-element consideration of the system, since each of the stages in the socio-economic development of society was characterized by its own level of technology, level of production and consumption, the specifics of property relations and political structure.

We are looking at industrial relations. In this regard, the principles of a systematic approach are used in the most general form. Both the productive forces and the superstructure should be considered from a systemic standpoint. This will contribute to a deeper understanding of industrial relations.

The relations of production are a system primarily because the very process of reproduction of material goods that serve to satisfy the economic needs of society is a dialectical unity of production and consumption. These two specific elements of the system of production relations - the relations of production and consumption - due to their contradictory interaction constitute an organic integrity.

The effectiveness of using a systematic approach in the analysis of industrial relations is largely determined by the level of study of the very structure of the system, the choice of principles, in accordance with which subsystems, or blocks, are distinguished within the system of industrial relations. Industrial relations are a structurally complex entity. The study of the structure of production relations can be based on various principles. Each of the aspects of the study has both scientific and practical significance, revealing the structure of the structure from a certain point of view: such an analysis contributes to the deepening of knowledge in general.

Economic research methods are a set of specific methods and techniques) used in the study of specific reality. All methods of economic research are divided into two groups: qualitative and quantitative.

Qualitative methods include the method of scientific abstraction; methods of induction and deduction; historical and logical devices in economic analysis. Experiment in economics is limited. Therefore, the method of scientific abstraction prevails. It consists in abstraction from external phenomena of non-essential aspects, revealing the deepest essence of the subject.

The real socio-economic world is too complex and intricate to be presented as strictly ordered. Therefore, socio-economic facts require generalizations, i.e. their rational processing and systematization. This is what abstraction means - a deliberate simplification of reality, which is of practical significance. The result of applying the method of scientific abstraction are economic concepts, categories.

Economic categories are scientific abstractions derived from reality and providing its understanding (for example, goods, production, etc.). Based on the concepts derived by abstraction, he explores the content of the entire phenomenon, and explains the entire diversity of socio-economic life.

The path from the abstract to the concrete is the most effective for the current state of economic science and its knowledge of concepts and categories.

Induction and deduction clarify the understanding of abstraction as a method of studying economic reality. This follows from their definition. Induction is the process of deriving theories from facts, a logical conclusion from particular, isolated cases to a general conclusion, from individual facts to their generalization. Deduction is a logical conclusion from the general to the particular, the a priori formulation of theoretical hypotheses, followed by the collection and processing of factual material to confirm them. Both methods are inextricably linked.

The abstraction method itself involves the use of not only economic, but also philosophical knowledge accumulated by mankind to assess facts and derive patterns in the socio-economic development of society.

Historical and logical methods are interconnected. The historical method means following in the cognition of reality in accordance with the development of events in time. The logical method is essentially the same historical method, but freed from historical form and random phenomena and events.

Economic practice serves as a test for the scientific nature of certain achievements. It discards everything that is far-fetched, is not a reflection of reality.

Quantitative methods are a set of techniques for processing factual material. The basis of quantitative methods are accounting, reporting, statistics.

The reliability of the actual data supplied by accounting and statistical reporting determines the value of quantitative methods and the scientific nature (objectivity) of the conclusions, i.e. qualitative analysis.

Quantitative methods are designed to measure economic phenomena, compare them, compare (for example, the price allows you to compare goods of different quality). Quantitative methods developed and became more complicated along with the development of various branches of knowledge: mathematics, statistics.

Quantitative methods have gone through at least four stages of development:

1. arithmetic measurement;
2. with the advent of money - accounting for goods of different quality in a single cost meter;
3. the use of quantitative indicators characterizing the economic development of the country as a whole;
4. use of optimal methods of economic analysis, methods of mathematical modeling.

An integral guarantee of success in economics is the combination of qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis. These are two interrelated methods, in which the priority is given to qualitative analysis. It should precede the quantitative evaluation of the phenomenon. Only an objective knowledge of the essence and content of the process of reproduction of material goods and services, a deeper understanding of economic categories and laws that reflect this process, a scientifically based setting of research goals, classification principles, etc. facilitate quantification. Qualified quantitative assessment of economic phenomena, their categories and laws allows expanding and raising the scientific level of qualitative analysis and its results.

Statistics is invaluable for economics. Of all the scientific disciplines directly related to economic theory, statistics deserves special attention.

Economic theory is a generalization of economic practice. The latter has an accurate quantitative reflection in the form of manufactured products, the total costs of its production, income received and channels for spending them, etc., expressed in physical terms and in money. The objectivity of economic research, the reliability and practical significance of economic conclusions depend on the completeness with which statistical data on reproduction are collected, what is their quality.

Soviet official statistics, especially in recent years, were distinguished by the falsification of actual data, embellishing them for political purposes. However, the planned economy suffered from this, since it relied on unrealistic data in national economic planning. The countries of the former USSR will have to reorganize their statistics: firstly, their data must meet international standards; secondly, to serve the market economy, information on profit, profitability, assets, securities, business activity, inflation, unemployment, etc. will be required.

Increasing the degree of reliability of statistical data is an urgent task not only for the countries of the former USSR, but also for countries with developed market economies, in which economic data is distorted in order to reduce taxation.

• Economic theories as a reflection of the socio-economic development of society

Subject, method and functions of economic theory

• General concept of science and the place of economic theory in it
• The main features of socio-economic (production) relations

• The process of production, reproduction and its phases

  • General concept of the process of production and reproduction
  • The role and place of distribution in the reproductive process
  • Consumption as the final phase of the reproduction process and its prerequisite

• The system of property relations in the modern economy

  • The content of the economic theory of property rights and transaction costs

• System of economic interests, motives and incentives

  • Need as a material basis for economic interests
  • Functions of the system of economic interests. Motives and incentives for efficient management

• System of economic laws

  • Identification of economic laws and new trends in the socio-economic development of society is the main purpose of economic science
  • Content of economic law and methodology of its research
  • Economic laws as a system. To the discussion about the basic economic law of the system
  • The main content of economic laws: saving time, increasing productivity and raising economic needs

• Market and market economy: content, functions, types

  • The concept of the market and market economy. Subjects of market relations
  • The functions of the market and its role in the socio-economic system of society

• Competition as the main element in the market business model

  • Development of a competitive environment in Russia and the competitiveness of domestic production
  • Antimonopoly Policy and Antimonopoly Regulation: Economic Content and Peculiarities of Russia
• • Conditions and reasons for the formation of the concept of marginal utility
  • Achievements and miscalculations of theories of labor value and marginal utility

• Demand, supply and price in the system of market relations

  • Supply and demand: content and problems of interaction
  • Problems of Supply and Demand Correlation in the Modern Russian Economy

• Essence and functions of money

  • Essence of money. features of paper money. The law of the amount of money in circulation

• Enterprise (firm) as the main business entity in the market

  Capital as a material basis for the development of an enterprise

  • The content of the concept of "capital" and the evolution of views on its nature
  • Circulation and turnover of capital (production assets) of the enterprise
  • The structure of the capital (production assets) of the enterprise. Physical and obsolescence of fixed capital

• Production costs: essence, classification and structure

  • General ideas about the production costs of the enterprise
  • Two concepts of production costs: Marxist and neoclassical
  • Methods to reduce production costs of the enterprise. Features of modern Russia

• Cash income of enterprises and forms of their manifestation in a market economy

  • Wages as a form of cash income of employees

• Features of agrarian relations. Land rent. Land price

  • The content of agrarian relations and the specifics of production in agriculture

• Bank as a business entity in a market economy. Securities and Stock Exchange

  • Features of a commercial bank as a business entity
  • Types of securities and features of pricing in the stock market

• Social reproduction at the national level

  • General concept of macroeconomics. Goals and objectives of macroeconomic analysis
  • Main indicators of the results of the reproduction process at the national level
  • Advantages and disadvantages of two methods for calculating final macroeconomic indicators
  • The balance sheet of the national economy and the system of national accounts

• Rates and factors of economic growth of the country

  Level of socio-economic development and types of economic growth

Let's take it as an example. It would seem obvious to everyone that this refers to the amount of money that the employer gives to the employee as a reward for his work.

However, in this understanding it is impossible to see the essence of earnings. It is not clear how its value is determined, does it mean full payment for the entire work of the employee?

The study of outwardly visible economic relations, of course, is available to every person. Therefore, already from childhood, people develop ordinary economic thinking, which is based on direct knowledge of economic life. Such thinking, as a rule, is subjective in nature, in which the individual psychology of a person is manifested. It is limited by a person's personal outlook, often based on fragmentary and one-sided information.

Economic theory seeks to reveal the essence behind the external appearance of economic phenomena - their inner content, as well as the cause-and-effect dependence of some phenomena on others. Professor Paul Heine (USA) made an interesting comparison:

“An economist knows the real world no better, and in most cases worse than managers, engineers, mechanics, in a word, business people. But economists know how different things are related. Economics allows us to better understand what we see, to think more consistently and logically about a wide range of complex social relations.

scientific methods

In any science, a certain set of research methods is used. These methods are divided into:

• universal (philosophical), arming all areas of knowledge, for example, metaphysical and dialectical methods
• general scientific - historical, logical, mathematical, etc.
• specific - for each branch of science

In economic theory, two, although opposite, but interconnected philosophical methods are used - metaphysics and dialectics.

Metaphysics considers all phenomena separately, in a state of rest and immutability. This is necessary in cases where some part of the system is analyzed separately or the internal structure of economic relations is clarified. We will do the same, for example, when classifying types of property, forms of organization of the economy, functions of money, types of markets, forms of wages.

Economic theory more fully reflects reality when it adopts dialectics - the doctrine of the most general patterns of formation and development of all phenomena of nature, society and thinking. The German philosopher Georg Hegel (1770-1831), the creator of the systematic theory of dialectics, placed contradiction at the center of this theory. He considered the latter as a unity of mutually exclusive and at the same time mutually presupposing opposites. Hegel estimated contradiction as a "motor", as an internal impulse of any development. This, of course, fully applies to real economic activity and to economic theory.

Dialectical method

The dialectical method reflects the contradictions in their inseparable unity. This makes it possible in practice to avoid unilateral and erroneous decisions, to unite seemingly incompatible aspects of the phenomenon into a whole. Therefore, in economic activity, various forms arise that allow finding a compromise (an agreement between various parties, achieved through concessions). In subsequent chapters, we will learn how to combine, say, such opposites as supply and demand, competition and monopoly, market and government regulators of the economy.

historical method

An important role in the study of economics is played by general scientific methods. Among them is the historical method, which allows you to find out how economic systems arise and develop. This approach helps to concretely and visually present all the features of each system at different stages of its historical development, including the distinctive features of the modern economy.

Economic theory and practice convincingly show that all attempts to consider the economy as something historically unchanged are completely untenable. On the contrary, economic principles and laws operate differently depending on the time factor (in the short and long term).

However, the historical approach to the analysis of economic activity is fraught with significant shortcomings. The abundance of descriptive material and private historical details can hinder the theoretical study of economics. In this way it is not possible to clearly identify the typical features of production systems. The logical method helps to overcome these shortcomings.

Boolean Method

The logical method allows you to apply the laws and forms of correct thinking. With their help, the truth of the expressed judgments and conclusions is achieved.

The logical method helps to better understand the cause-and-effect relationships in the economy. People do not always notice that there are certain objective connections between economic processes. The latter change in time and space with a natural sequence, which can be called objective logic (an internal regularity in the development of economic phenomena). If, say, oil production is suspended for some reason, then this inevitably entails many undesirable consequences: oil refineries, petrochemical enterprises stop working, motor fuel is not produced, thermal power plants are turned off, etc.

In order to help economic development free itself from natural forces, or at least reduce their destructive consequences, economic science seeks to know as fully and deeply as possible the objective logic of economic development on the scale of each enterprise, country and the whole world. The obtained theoretical and practical conclusions are used to predict and improve the management of the economy.

Methods of mathematics and statistics

Consideration of the qualitative features of economic systems is supplemented by the study of the quantitative side of economic processes using the methods of mathematics and statistics. In economic theory, special sections of these sciences are widely used: economic and mathematical methods and economic statistics.

At the same time, over the past century, there has often been an excessive enthusiasm for mathematics among economists. It sometimes led to the separation of the used algebraic formulas and graphs from the dynamics of real economic processes. The Nobel Prize winner in economics, the English scientist Friedrich von Hayek, aptly pointed out the great advantage of algebraic methods, which consists in the fact that with their help it is possible to recreate a complex picture of the internal interconnection of various phenomena of the market system:

“But this, however, gave rise to the illusion that these methods are suitable for determining and predicting the numerical values ​​of these quantities, and this led to a fruitless search for quantitative or numerical constants.”

Economic theory studies non-fast and random events. She strives for scientific generalizations of typical facts, therefore she turns to economic statistics. The latter gives an accurate description and measurement of the quantitative processes that are characteristic of the mass phenomena of economic life over a sufficiently long period - 10, 20 or more years.

Rice. 1.1.

Exploring economic processes, ET applies a number of general scientific methods of cognition. The most important of them for the economy are nine (Fig. 1.1). Thus, it is obvious that the empirical function of ET assumes observation (deliberate, purposeful perception of economic phenomena, processes in their real form) and collection of real facts. It is thanks to the information obtained in this way that it is possible, say, to trace how commodity prices have changed for one or another pepiol. How the volume of production, trade and profits of enterprises increased. In contrast to this An experiment involves an artificial scientific experiment, when the object under study is placed in specially created and controlled conditions. For example, to test the effectiveness of a new wage system, its trial tests are carried out within a particular group of workers.

In its turn modeling involves the study of socio-economic phenomena according to their theoretical, virtual model - according to models, which replaces the object of study itself (simulation on computers is especially effective).

The method of scientific abstractions (abstraction) is a special mental technique that allows you to formulate certain abstract concepts - abstractions(from Latin abstractio - distraction), or categories (cost, price, money, market, expensive, cheap, etc.).

For example, the concept of a product - how to define it? If you start from the store shelves, nothing will work. What kind of things are not there in the mixed goods - big-small, edible-inedible, liquid-loose ... How to bring this to a "general commodity denominator"? How to manage to combine, relatively speaking, round and green? Only with the help abstraction, i.e. abstraction from the specific, but secondary in this case, properties of these things (size, weight, shape, color). Having done this, we will simultaneously fix the features that unite them, namely, that they are all products of labor intended for sale. This is the answer to the question, what is a product.

Methods of analysis and synthesis involve the study of economic phenomena as in parts - this analysis(from the Greek. analysis - dismemberment), and in general - synthesis(from Greek synthesis - connection). For example, comparing the economic performance of individual mines is analysis, and the definition of industry-wide results of managing the entire coal industry in Russia - synthesis.

Thanks to the combination of methods of analysis and synthesis, a systematic, integrated approach to complex (multi-element) objects of study. Such objects ( systems) are considered as complex interconnected parts (subsystems) of a single the whole and not as a mechanical connection of some disparate elements. This is important, because the entire economy (and not only it) consists of many large and small systems (the national economy - from industries, industries - from enterprises, enterprises - from workshops, the cost of goods - from cost elements, the market - from many sectors, niches , participants).

The division of ET into micro- and macroeconomics is logically connected with analysis and synthesis. It involves two different levels of consideration of economic systems. So, microeconomics having dealt with individual elements (parts) of these systems. She learns (A) such isolated economic units as industry, enterprise, household); and (b) individual markets (say, the grain market); production, sale or price of a particular product, etc. The microeconomic approach is thus close to the method of analysis.

In contrast to this macroeconomics explores economic systems generally, or the so-called units, that is, a set of economic units. Such aggregates include the world economy, the national economy, as well as large subdivisions of the latter - the public sector, households (taken in aggregate), the private sector, etc. Macroeconomics, based on the synthesis method, operates with generalizing (aggregate) indicators of the type: gross production volume, National income, total expenses. In addition, the macroeconomic sphere also includes consideration of such general concepts such as cost, market, budget, taxes, etc.

Figuratively speaking, if microeconomics studies scattered trees, then macroeconomics- the forest formed from them. At the same time, the division of economic science into micro- and macrospheres should not be taken as an absolute, since they are closely interconnected and intertwined. Many problems intrude into both realms, albeit at different levels of generality. Where, for example, to attribute questions of profit? After all, to compare the incomes of two specific factories (microeconomics), you need to use general the concept of profit, and it is developed by macroeconomics.

Further induction and deduction . These are two opposite but closely related ways of reasoning. The movement of thought from particular (separate) facts to a general conclusion is induction(from Latin inductio - guidance), or generalization. Reasoning in the opposite direction (from the general position to particular conclusions) is called deduction(from lat. deductio - excretion). Thus, when we see in some country that almost all citizens have a job, that their growing incomes are outpacing price increases, and the stores are filled with domestic goods, then this suggests on the idea of ​​economic growth induction). And the opposite example deduction. If the country is reputed to be backward and poor, then from this general idea one can certainly draw conclusions: arbitrariness and venality of officials, lawlessness and crime, unemployment and economic stagnation reign in it.

Historical and logical methods (approaches) are also used in unity. Here is a detailed study of socio-economic processes in their historical sequences accompany logical generalizations, those. assessment of these processes as a whole and general conclusions. For example, a detailed study of the specific course and features of building socialism in the 20th century in different societies is historical an approach. And the conclusions based on it (about the inefficiency of the economy in socialist countries, about the widespread loss of incentives to work, about commodity shortages, etc.) - approach logical.

Widely used in ET graphic method . It displays economic phenomena using diagrams, tables, graphs, diagrams, providing brevity, conciseness and clarity in the presentation of complex theoretical material. So, schedule visibly demonstrates the dependence of certain quantities on each other, reflecting, for example, the relationship between ticket prices and the number of theater spectators (Fig. 1.2). The figure shows that there is inversely proportional(negative) relationship: the higher the prices, the fewer viewers. This causes descending the nature of the curve. In other cases there may be directly proportional(positive) dependencies with ascending lines on the graph (p. 122).

The main task of modern economic science is to describe, analyze and explain the development of the economy, as well as the processes occurring in production, during the distribution of the produced product, its exchange and consumption. The conclusions of economic science are necessary to determine the economic behavior of society and individual market agents. The complexity of human behavior and changes in social life does not allow one to hope to achieve the degree of accuracy that is inherent in research in the natural sciences. During economic analysis it is not possible to conduct controlled experiments. In the conclusions, we have to simplify a lot, to abstract from the infinite mass of details. What is considered prudent for an individual or firm may sometimes be reckless for a nation or state.

Every science develops and applies its own tools, specific methods and techniques of cognition of reality. The economist, like the astronomer, has to be content mainly with "observation." But in order to obtain reliable conclusions, one must first learn to objectively evaluate what is the subject of observation. Phenomena and processes must be studied in their universal connection and interdependence, in a state of continuous development and change. Here one cannot do without statistics, without constructing time series, tables, without applying a systematic approach to the analysis of phenomena.

Thus, the method of cognition is not a product of a subjective view, but a correct reflection in the minds of people of the objective process of development of a given reality.

Economic theory mainly uses the following methods of cognition of economic phenomena and processes: the dialectical method; scientific abstraction; analysis and synthesis; induction and deduction; historical and logical methods; economic experiment; economic modeling; and etc.

Dialectical method- a method of cognition common to all sciences, including for economic theory. It is based on the use of the laws and principles of philosophy, the essence of which is the knowledge of economic phenomena and processes in their connection and interdependence in a state of direct development, in the understanding that the accumulation of quantitative changes predetermines changes in the qualitative state.

scientific abstraction as a method consists in in-depth knowledge of real economic phenomena by highlighting the main, essential features of the sides of a certain phenomenon, cleared (abstracted) from everything random, insignificant.

Analysis and synthesis as a research method is applied in the unity of its two components. At analysis the object of study is decomposed into its component parts, each of which is studied separately; at synthesis there is a combination of different elements, sides of the object into a single whole, taking into account the relationships between them.

Induction and deduction. Induction- this is a method of cognition from the individual to the general, from knowledge of the lowest degree to knowledge of the highest degree (from facts to conclusions, theories). Deduction- a method of cognition from the general to the individual (testing hypotheses with facts).

Historical and logical methods are used to study economic phenomena in their unity, integrity. historical method studies these processes in the historical sequence in which they arose, developed and changed in real life. Boolean Method explores economic processes in their logical sequence, moving from simple to complex, while freeing himself from historical accidents and details not inherent in this process.

economic modeling is a formalized description of economic processes and phenomena (with the help of mathematics and econometrics), the structure of which abstractly recreates the real picture of economic life.

economic experiment- artificial reproduction of economic phenomena and processes in order to study them under optimally favorable conditions for further practical implementation. In particular, the economic experiment makes it possible in practice to test the validity of scientific hypotheses and recommendations in order to prevent mistakes and failures in the economic policy of the state.

13. Technology for solving problems: To students who want to "fly"